The essence of the concept of "world economy". Fuel and energy complex, development trends
1 . The essence of the concept of "World Economy".
WORLD ECONOMY - the economy of all countries of the world community, considered taking into account inter-country economic relationships and interactions. This is a set of national economies united by various types of world economic ide.
The world economy as a science (or academic discipline) is part of the theory of a market economy that studies the patterns of economic interaction between different states in the field of international exchange of goods and services, the movement of factors of production relations.
The world economy is a set of national economies of the countries of the world, interconnected by mobile factors of production. This is a worldwide, global, geo-economic space in which goods, services, and capital circulate freely in the interests of increasing the efficiency of material production.
world economy- a set of national economies of the countries of the world, interconnected by mobile factors of production. This is a worldwide, global, geo-economic space in which goods, services, and capital circulate freely in the interests of increasing the efficiency of material production.
The characteristic features of the modern world economy are as follows:
Development of the international movement of factors of production, primarily in the form of export-import of capital, labor and technology;
The growth on this basis of international forms of production at enterprises located in several countries, primarily within the framework of transnational corporations;
The economic policy of states, which provides for the support of the international movement of goods and factors of production on a bilateral and multilateral basis;
The emergence of an open economy within many states and interstate associations.
2. Natural resource potential of the world economy
Natural resources are the primary source, the starting base for the economy of all countries at all stages of their development. There are two types of natural resources: renewable and non-renewable. Renewable resources can be used periodically and in an amount that does not deplete their cash for future consumption. Renewable natural resources include land, sea, rivers, solar heat and energy, etc. Forests, wildlife and fish stocks can also be examples of renewable resources. If logging and fishing are carried out moderately and rationally, then nature itself will take care of their reproduction. Non-renewable resources include those that are used once and are not reproduced by nature itself. Such resources include coal, oil, gas, etc.
Natural resources have two important economic dimensions - stock size and flow. The size of the stock of each resource is determined by the very nature and intensity of the previous use. The flows of natural resources depend on the level of their annual consumption. Human needs determine this flow, and depending on them, natural resources can be consumed quickly, slowly, or not used at all.
Labor force as an active part of the population - second important component. The higher its proportion in the composition of the population, the greater the productive potential of the national economy.
The size of the employed (active) labor force depends on many economic, social and demographic factors. In terms of the share of employed, developing countries are significantly inferior to developed countries, and the number of hours worked per week is much higher in developing countries.
The rapid growth of the population in developing countries, the low share of its active part, significantly slows down, even lowers the growth of gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, which dooms the ongoing efforts for economic development to failure. All attempts to solve the problems of economic growth in developing countries on their own are doomed to failure. The solution of the issue is possible only within the framework of the world economy, in which each country will find its own food in the MRI system.
What population size should be considered optimal from an economic point of view, and what are the criteria for such optimality? Since the per capita income depends on the population, the optimal amount is the one that maximizes per capita income .
Human resources and the movement of the population as a whole is engaged demography- a science that, on the basis of social, economic, biological, geographical factors, explores the patterns that occur in the structure, dynamics, as well as the distribution and movement of the population. On the basis of this, a population policy is developed, forecast estimates are made of changes in the country's population of the country, region and within the framework of the world economy as a whole.
An integral part of the demographic processes in the global economy are the processes of urbanization . Urbanization - this is a multilateral socio-economic, demographic and geographical process occurring on the basis of historically established forms of social and territorial division of labor. In the narrow sense of the word, this is the growth of cities, especially large ones, an increase in the proportion of the urban population in a country, region, and the world.
With a fixed level of technology, land and capital, too small a population does not provide adequate scope either for the maximum effect of the division of labor, or for the full realization of the effect of scale in the production of national industry.
Problems of big cities: a significant geographic mismatch between jobs and the labor force in the suburbs and the city center, which requires the creation of an efficient transport system; environmental pollution.
Fossil resources. Their deposits have a different degree of exploration and a different degree of assessment accuracy. In foreign countries, the following classification is applied. According to the degree of exploration, explored reserves are divided into reliable and probable. There is also a category of possible reserves. In general, the study of the bowels is still insufficient. The proportion of proven reserves for certain types of minerals sometimes amounts to several percent of geological reserves. Mineral reserves vary by country.
Influence of the natural resource potential of the state on the development of the national economy and its integration into the IER.
To understand this issue, it is necessary to get acquainted with the essence of the so-called . "Dutch Syndrome". Many countries rich in raw materials are subject to its influence, incl. and Russia. essence "Dutch Syndrome" is that the presence of a large number of various minerals does not at all guarantee prosperity to the country, and under certain conditions even harms its economy, and vice versa. As a rule, a stable inflow of export earnings from the fuel and energy complex or other primary industries (sectors) leads to the fact that the country ceases to pay attention to the development of its manufacturing industry, preferring to purchase imported equipment and finished products.
In Russia, this disease began to develop in the 70s. This was due to a jump in oil prices and the discovery of new oil fields in Western Siberia (Samotlor and others). Soviet industry, during this period, produced mostly non-competitive products. In addition, the USSR had no export orientation and came into contact with the outside world exclusively through the supply of raw materials and fuel. High-tech equipment was purchased for export proceeds, and most of it was not accepted by the economy, because. the system that existed at that time was not focused on innovation. Strange as it may seem, radical reforms only exacerbated the situation. The reformers, guided by the Darwinian principle of natural selection (everything that is viable should survive, and that which is not viable, will die), pushed the domestic economy not to renewal, but to primitivization. It has become even more focused on fuel and raw material exports.
An example of the opposite approach is the experience of Western Europe, Japan, the USA and the Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs). The first three, faced with a fuel and raw material crisis in the 70s, concentrated on the development of energy-saving technologies and reduced energy consumption by 30% over 30 years. The second (NIS) took advantage of the transfer of labor-intensive industries from developed countries to developing countries, which began in the 60s, and began to fill a niche in the market for consumer goods and household appliances.
The main difference between the experience of the raw-materials countries of Southeast Asia and Russia is that they, albeit with a twenty-year delay, nevertheless placed emphasis on the development of the manufacturing industry.
Thus it is possible to do output, that the presence of minerals is an important condition for the country's integration into the IER, however, if the stake is placed only on them, this inevitably leads to a weakening of the country's position in terms of the competitiveness of its exports, because. stable income can only be provided export of manufactured products . The experience of the countries of Southeast Asia shows that economic success can also be associated with the quality of the labor force. Confucianism left the most important qualities to these countries: discipline, learning, diligence, patriotism.
3. Classification of countries according to the level of socio-economic development
Not all countries (and there are about two hundred of them) are equally involved in the world economy. From the point of view of their level of development and socio-economic organization of production and the complex structure of the world economy, the center and the periphery are quite clearly visible.
The center is a relatively small group of industrialized countries (24 states), which account for almost 55% of world GDP and 71% of world exports.
The periphery includes mainly developing countries. With all their diversity, a number of common features can be distinguished:
The multistructural nature of the economy with a predominance of non-market relations and non-economic levers of organizing the economy;
Low level of development of productive forces, backwardness of industry and agriculture;
Raw material specialization.
NEW INDUSTRIAL COUNTRIES - a group of developing countries that have reached, by the end of the 20th century. a significant economic upsurge, approaching, in terms of basic socio-economic indicators, economically developed countries, such as Brazil, South Korea, Taiwan, etc.
A country's activity in world trade is measured using indicators such as:
but) export quota, i.e. the ratio of the volume of exported goods and services to GDP/GNP; at the industry level, this is the share of all goods and services exported by the industry in their total volume;
b) import quota- an indicator that characterizes the volume of imports of a certain product, established in accordance with the needs for it and the volumes of its own production. It is the ratio of a country's gross imports to its GDP. It shows how much imports make up of GDP;
in) foreign trade quota is the ratio of a country's foreign trade turnover to its GDP. It shows the total volume of external trade turnover of a given country with a partner country or with the entire world community, i.e. serves to measure the level of development of foreign economic relations of a given country.
b) export structure , those. the ratio or specific gravity of exported goods by type and degree of their processing. The structure of exports makes it possible to highlight the raw materials or machine-technical orientation of exports, the country's role in international industry specialization;
in) import structure, the ratio of volumes of raw materials imported into the country and finished products. This indicator most clearly shows the dependence of the country's economy on the external market and the level of development of the sectors of the national economy;
d) the comparative ratio of the country's share in world production of GDP / GNP and its share in world trade. So, if a country's share in the world production of any type of product is 10%, and its share in world trade in this product is 1-2%, then this means that the goods produced do not correspond to the world quality level as a result of the low development of this industry.
4. The international division of labor and its significance for the development of the world economy
INTERNATIONAL DIVISION OF LABOR - the specialization of countries in the production of certain types of goods, for the manufacture of which the country has cheaper resources and preferable conditions compared to other countries. With such specialization, the needs of countries are satisfied not only by their own production, but also through international trade. This is the specialization of individual countries in the production of certain goods and services in order to sell them in other countries.
MRI is a system or method of organizing interdependent production, in which enterprises of different countries specialize in the manufacture of certain goods and services, and then exchange them.
The first factor has to do with natural benefits. These include reserves of natural resources, specific climatic conditions.
Other factors are related to acquired benefits. Thus, an excess of machinery and equipment relative to other resources stimulates specialization in the production of capital-intensive products. Countries that invest heavily in public education and knowledge production gain a comparative advantage in the production of high-tech and knowledge-intensive products.
The main motive for MRI for all countries of the world, regardless of social and economic differences, is their desire for economic benefits.
Intra-industry, which expresses the concentration of efforts of enterprises from different countries that are part of an industry on the production of certain items and the exchange of these items between them.
Within its framework, it is necessary to distinguish between single-species, multi-species and all-species subject intra-industry specialization.
Intersectoral, which means the division of labor between different branches of the same kind of production (industry, agriculture, etc.).
Intergeneric, this is the division of labor between the types of production - industry and agriculture, industry and construction, etc. national economic I in its economic content, it corresponds to the interregional form of the division of labor within the country and represents the division of activities between countries on the scale of their complete national economies.
5. The process of internationalization of the modern world economy
INTERNATIONALIZATION OF ECONOMY - formation, development of economic relations with other countries; processes of economic rapprochement, manifested in the growth of international trade and other forms of international economic cooperation, the growth of intercountry financial flows, labor migration. There are internationalization of production, capital, trade, science. One of the important forms of internationalization of the economy is the emergence and development of transnational corporations. The economic basis of the modern world economy is the internationalization of production - the development of such organizational and economic forms that link the production of some countries with the consumption of its results in others.
Internationalization of business activities- this is the strengthening of the interconnection and interdependence of the economies of individual countries, the influence of international economic relations on national economies, the participation of countries in the world economy.
In its development, the internationalization of the economy has passed a series of stages . Initially, it was an international economic cooperation: it affected, first of all, the sphere of circulation and was associated with the emergence of international trade (the end of the 18th - the beginning of the 20th century). At the end of the 19th century, the international movement of capital is gaining momentum. International economic cooperation means the development of stable economic ties between countries and peoples, the expansion of the reproduction process beyond national borders.
The next stage was international economic integration, objectively due to the deepening of the international division of labor, the internationalization of capital, the global nature of scientific and technological progress and the increase in the degree of openness of national economies and freedom of trade. Integration translated from Latin (integratio) means the connection of individual parts into a common, whole, united.
International economic integration- convergence and mutual adaptation of national economies, their inclusion in a single reproduction process on an international scale. This is a process of economic interaction between countries, leading to convergence of economic mechanisms, taking the form of interstate agreements and coordinated by interstate bodies.
Economic integration, in particular, is expressed in :
Cooperation between the national economies of different countries and their complete or partial unification;
Elimination of barriers in the movement of goods, services, capital, labor between these countries;
Convergence of the markets of each of the individual countries in order to form one single (common) market;
Erasing differences between economic entities belonging to different states;
The absence of any form of discrimination against foreign partners in each of the national economies, etc.
By the end XX in. practically all civilized countries participate in various international economic organizations. For example, by 1996, 183 countries were members of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), 180 states were members of the World Bank (WB), about 150 countries are members of the World Trade Organization (WTO), over 100 countries are members of the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs. It is important to note that international law does not prevent the simultaneous participation of any country in several international economic organizations.
Although practically all states of the globe take part in the world integration process, the degree of participation of each of them in this process is not the same. Some of them are at the lowest stages of economic integration, while others, having reached the highest limits of international economic relations today, are expanding interstate cooperation to the level of military and political spheres.
Integration prerequisites are as follows:
Proximity of levels of economic development and degree of market maturity of integrating countries
The geographical proximity of the integrating countries, the presence in most cases of a common border and historically established economic ties.
The commonality of economic and other problems facing countries in the field of development, financing, economic regulation, political cooperation, etc.
demo effect.
"Domino effect".
Goals of integration
Taking advantage of economies of scale .
Creation of a favorable foreign policy environment .
Solving the problems of trade policy.
Promoting economic restructuring .
Support for young national industries .
Stages of integration
On the first level , when the countries are just taking the first steps towards mutual rapprochement, they conclude preferential trade agreements (Table 12.1). Such agreements can be signed either on a bilateral basis between individual states, or between an already existing integration group and a separate country or group of countries. According to them, countries provide more favorable treatment to each other than they provide to third countries.
On the second level integration countries are moving to creation free trade zones , which no longer provides for a simple reduction, but the complete abolition of customs tariffs in mutual trade while maintaining national customs tariffs in relations with third countries.
Third level integration linked to education customs union(TS)- the agreed cancellation by the group of national customs tariffs and the introduction of a common customs tariff and a unified system of non-tariff regulation of trade in relation to third countries. The customs union provides for duty-free intra-integration trade in goods and services and complete freedom of their movement within the region. Usually, a customs union requires the creation of an already more developed system of interstate bodies coordinating the implementation of a coordinated foreign trade policy. Most often they take the form of periodic meetings of ministers leading the relevant departments, which in their work rely on a permanent interstate secretariat.
When the integration process reaches fourth level - common market (OR) - integrating countries agree on the freedom of movement not only of goods and services, but also of factors of production - capital and labor.
Finally, on the fifth the highest level of integration turns into economic union(ES), which, along with the common customs tariff and freedom of movement of goods and factors of production, also provides for the coordination of macroeconomic policy and the unification of legislation in key areas - currency, budget, and money. At this stage, there is a need for bodies endowed not only with the ability to coordinate actions and monitor economic development, but also to make operational decisions on behalf of the group as a whole. Governments agree to give up part of their functions and thereby concede part of state sovereignty in favor of supranational bodies. Such interstate bodies with supranational functions are empowered to make decisions on matters relating to the organization without the consent of the governments of the member countries. Within the EU, this is the EU Commission.
It is fundamentally possible that there is sixth level integration - political union (PU) , which would provide for the transfer by national governments of most of their functions in relations with third countries to supranational bodies.
9.Globalization of the world economy
ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION - strengthening of interconnections, interactions and interdependence of economies, economic systems of different countries of the world; The globalization of the world economy can also be characterized as an increase in the interdependence and mutual influence of various spheres and processes of the world economy, which is expressed in the gradual transformation of the world economy into a single market for goods, services, capital, labor and knowledge.
The process of globalization covers different areas of the world economy, namely:
· external, international, world trade in goods, services, technologies, objects of intellectual property;
international movement of factors of production (labor, capital, information);
· international financial-credit and currency transactions (gratuitous financing and assistance, credits and loans of subjects of international economic relations, transactions with securities, special financial mechanisms and instruments, currency transactions);
· production, scientific and technical, technological, engineering and information cooperation.
Economic globalization is the process of accumulation of structural shifts and the gradual formation of an organically integral world economy
The main prerequisites (driving forces) that determine the process of globalization are:
1. Production, scientific, technical and technological:
a sharp increase in the scale of production;
· the rapid dissemination of knowledge as a result of scientific or other types of intellectual interchange;
2. Organizational:
· international forms of implementation of production and economic activities (TNCs): organizational forms, the scope of which go beyond national boundaries, acquire an international character, contributing to the formation of a single market space;
· exit of non-governmental organizations to the multinational or world level. A new global role began to be played by such international organizations as the UN, the IMF, the World Bank, the WTO, etc.;
3. Economic:
· the introduction by international economic organizations of uniform criteria for macroeconomic policy, the unification of requirements for tax, regional, agrarian, antimonopoly policy, employment policy, etc.;
· Strengthening the trend towards unification and standardization. 4. Informational:
a radical change in the means of business communication, the exchange of industrial, scientific, technical, economic, financial information
· the formation of systems that allow one center to manage production located in different countries, creating opportunities for prompt, timely and effective solution of production, scientific, technical, commercial problems no worse than within individual countries.
5. Political:
· weakening the rigidity of state borders, facilitating the freedom of movement of citizens, goods and services, capital;
· the end of the Cold War, overcoming political differences between East and West.
6. Social and cultural:
· weakening the role of habits and traditions, social ties and customs, overcoming national limitations, which increases the mobility of people in territorial, spiritual and psychological terms, promotes international migration;
· Manifestation of the trend towards the formation of globalized "homogeneous" mass media, art, pop culture.
Overcoming boundaries in education through the development of distance learning;
Globalization processes are most often welcomed in developed countries and cause serious concern in the developing world. The degree of positive impact of globalization processes on the economy of individual countries depends on the place they occupy in the world economy; in fact, rich countries or individuals receive the bulk of the benefits.
The unfair distribution of the benefits of globalization gives rise to the threat of conflicts at the regional, national and international levels.
As problems that can potentially cause negative consequences from globalization processes in all countries, we can name:
deindustrialization of the economy,
Attempts to undermine national sovereignty, i.e. transfer of control over the economy of individual countries from sovereign governments to other hands, including the most powerful states, multinational or global corporations and international organizations.
Rising unemployment.
Potential global instability due to the interdependence of national economies at the global level.
10. Subjects of world economic relations
The subjects of world economic relations are private (individual) persons and organizations (legal entities) engaged in the implementation of international economic transactions.
From the standpoint of the national economy, the subjects are divided into residents and non-residents.
Residents are business entities permanently located on the territory of a given country, regardless of their national (state) affiliation.
Non-residents - economic entities permanently located in the territory of a foreign state, even if they are citizens of this country, but permanently residing abroad, or branches of economic units of this country located outside it.
In addition to organizations directly involved in foreign economic activity, supranational international institutions are beginning to play an increasingly active role in the global economy. They are represented by international economic institutions engaged in organizing and coordinating world economic relations. The tasks of these organizations are the creation of "rules of the game" for the normal functioning of the world economy and control over the practical implementation of world economic relations.
The priority of international law in operations on the world market does not mean the complete internationalization of the foreign economic activity of the state and the replacement of its foreign economic institutions by the activities of international economic organizations.
The duty of any state is to defend national economic interests, including through foreign economic activity. Therefore, in modern conditions, the state itself determines its foreign economic policy. To implement it, each country develops its own national legislation on foreign economic activity. For example, for Russia, the federal laws “On State Regulation of Foreign Trade Activity” are fundamental. .
Direct regulation of foreign economic activity in each country is carried out by special institutions. In Russia, such institutions include: the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations, the Ministry for Cooperation with the CIS, the Customs Committee, the Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Vneshtorgbank, etc.
These state organizations register foreign institutional units in the country, regulate exports and imports through the issuance of licenses, quotas and the establishment of customs tariffs, facilitate the signing of interstate agreements, the promotion of domestic residents into economic unions and the world economy as a whole.
The states participating in the world economic process, organizing and regulating international economic relations directly within the country, can also influence world economic relations as a whole. This kind of influence is realized in many ways, primarily by using the right of the participants in one or another international economic organization to develop and correct the rules of the intra-union “game”.
In addition, it should be noted that the states participating in the world economic process, especially the most economically developed and wealthy, have both direct and indirect opportunities to influence world economic relations, regulating them in their national interests.
Direct Regulator is an protectionism, with the help of which this or that state or union, in its own interests, provides advantages in the export and import of goods, services and capital.
Indirect regulation states can carry out world economic relations through their private firms (especially banks) and transnational companies (TNCs).
Thus, modern states, organizing their national economy for broad participation in the world economic process, at the same time actively organize and regulate the entire complex of world economic relations. This process allows countries not only to defend their economic interests in the international arena, but at the same time to improve and develop the world economy and international economic relations.
11. Classical theories of world trade.
Mercantilists essentially proposed enriching some countries at the expense of others, but their merit lies in the fact that they first drew attention to the problems of foreign trade, emphasized its importance for the economic development of countries, described and justified a certain ratio of export and import costs, i.e. . laid the foundation for the balance of payments.
Adam Smith noted that the wealth of a nation depends not so much on the amount of gold it accumulates, but on its ability to produce final goods and leave. He also developed the first classical theory of foreign trade - theory of absolute advantage.
ABSOLUTE ADVANTAGE - the ability of a state, region, company, arising as a result of geographical location, successful location, resource potential, other favorable conditions, to produce goods with minimal production and distribution costs in comparison with other countries, regions, firms that produce the same or similar goods. Thanks to this advantage, it is possible to sell your product on the market at a lower price and bypass competitors. A. Smith argued that those countries that actively participate in the international division of labor will receive the greatest benefit. A country that has certain advantages in the production of a product should specialize in its production for delivery to other countries.
Theory of Absolute Advantage- countries export those goods that they produce at lower cost (in the production of which they have an absolute advantage), and import those goods that are produced by other countries at lower cost (in the production of which their trading partners have an advantage).
This statement of A. Smith was supplemented by David Ricardo, creating theory of comparative benefits .
COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES - lower costs of one producer compared to the costs of another, which allows you to divide the output between them in favor of the first producer to obtain greater returns, benefits. Comparative advantages are most characteristic of different countries and are manifested in international trade.
Theory of comparative advantage - the producers of a country specialize in the production of those goods which they can produce at a relatively lower cost than in other countries, then trade will be mutually beneficial for both countries, regardless of whether production in one of them is absolutely more efficient than in the other.
Ricardo proved that foreign trade brings additional benefits even to countries with highly efficient economies.
in the 20-30s of our century to the creation Heckscher-Ohlin theories .
Heckscher-Ohlin theorem - Each country exports those factor-intensive goods for the production of which it has relatively excess factors of production, and imports those goods for the production of which it experiences a relative shortage of factors of production.
In this theory, the factors that determine the international division of labor are already associated not only with the natural conditions of production in the country, but with the realities that have arisen in the process of development of production. The theory proceeded from the fact that the historical and natural conditions of development of individual countries predetermined the unevenness in providing them with labor resources and capital. Therefore, different factor intensity and factor saturation determines the specialization of the country in the production of certain goods.
Factor intensity is the ratio of the costs of various factors of production for the production of a particular product
Factor saturation is the relative endowment of the country with factors of production .
Factor price equalization theorem (Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson theorem) - international trade leads to the equalization of absolute and relative prices for homogeneous factors of production in trading countries
In 1947, the American economist Wassily Leontiev, studying the structure of US exports and imports, found that more labor-intensive goods were exported, while capital-intensive ones were imported. V. Leontiev's research showed the opposite, and his result became known as Leontief's paradox .
Leontief's paradox- The Heckscher-Ohlin theory of the ratio of factors of production is not confirmed in practice: labor-surplus countries export capital-intensive products, while capital-surplus countries export labor-intensive ones.
An attempt to take into account the influence of the scientific and technological revolution in international trade led to the creation neotechnological theories foreign trade. Their supporters try to explain the emergence of foreign trade relations not by the availability of factors of production, as the neoclassicists did, but by the costs of research and development, the level of average wages and the proportion of skilled labor. This school explains the emergence of advantages by a monopoly on individual discoveries and new technologies, which makes it possible to dominate both the production of these goods and their sale on the world market until these technologies are mastered by other countries.
technology gap theory , the foundations of which were laid by the English economist M. Posner in the early 60s. Posner suggested that if one of the developed countries, as a result of some discovery, has a fundamentally new technology or a new product, then this product will be in demand even in countries with the same resource endowment. Then, as a result of the predominant position of one country, a technological gap arises between countries.
This model was developed by another American economist, Raymond Vernon, who in 1966 published an article describing the product life cycle model, which can be considered both as an independent theory of international trade and as a theory that develops the theory of comparative provision with factors of production. But, unlike her, she explores the comparative advantage of countries not static but dynamic.
International trade is based on differences in relative prices of goods that arise due to the different endowments of countries with specific factors of production, with factors specific to the export sector developing, and factors specific to the sector competing with imports decreasing.
Theory of the firm associated with the strengthening of the role of individual firms and corporations in international trade. IN Ultimately, it is not the nation that always gets comparative advantage, but the individual firm that exports the product. In the course of research, it turned out that technologically complex products are created by a separate company based on the needs and demand that exist within the country. Only after the expansion of production and saturation of the domestic market, the firm can enter the foreign market. But in order to sell your products, you need to find a buyer country whose demand structure in the domestic market would be as close as possible to the demand structure of the exporting country. This explains the possibility of trade transactions between countries at the same level of economic development, in particular between developed industrial countries. This position was first substantiated by the American economist E. Linder.
A peculiar generalization of the modern development of the theories of foreign trade is theory of international competitiveness of the nation , developed by the American researcher M. Porter. He came to the conclusion that the place of each country and its specific producers in the world market depends on four basic conditions: the quantity and quality of various factors of production, demand conditions in the domestic market, the presence of related and service industries, the strategy of the firm and internal competition.
12. Modern theories of international trade
All theories of international trade in one way or another pay attention to the formation of equilibrium prices in the world market and the distribution of income.
Neoclassical theories considered the problem of income as one of the key ones. Theory Heckscher - Olina argued that the owners of relatively excess factors of production receive additional profits from foreign trade, while the owners of relatively insufficient factors lose.
The theory of specific factors of production substantiates the position on the growth of income of the owner of a specific factor used in export production, and, accordingly, on the reduction in income of the owners of a specific factor used in industries. competing with imports.
In the process of trade between countries, prices for goods sold and bought can change. How will the income of the owners of factors of production change in this case? The answer to this question was given in a study by American economists P. Samuelson and F. Stolper. They suggested that in a particular country two types of goods are produced: one is labor intensive, and the other requires a large amount of land to produce.
Stolper - Samuelson theorem - as a result of rising prices in the world market, the prices of the factor of production that is relatively more intensively used in the production of the first good rise, and the prices of the factor of production that are used relatively intensively in the second production decrease. Moreover, as a rule, the increase or decrease in the price of factors of production occurs to a greater extent than the change in the prices of goods.
English economist T.M. Rybchinsky drew attention to the fact that the rapid development of some industries often leads to a reduction in production in others. In his work, he proceeded from the same conditions as Stolper and Samuelson, except for one thing: he considered the prices of goods to be unchanged.
Rybchinsky's theorem- an increasing supply of one of the factors of production leads to a disproportionately greater percentage increase in production and income in the industry for which this factor is used relatively more intensively, and to a reduction in production and income in the industry in which this factor is used relatively less intensively. From the point of view of international trade, Rybchinsky's theorem says that the expansion of export production due to the growth of supply of a relatively intensive factor will lead to a reduction in other industries, which will force the country to increase imports of goods that are in short supply. An increase in the supply of factors for the development of other industries will accelerate their development and reduce imports.
The distribution of benefits from foreign trade between individual countries depends largely on how domestic prices change under the influence of foreign trade. Of the two countries, the country where prices have changed the most usually wins. This so-called benefit distribution rule, which says that the benefits of foreign trade are distributed in direct proportion to price changes in both countries.
13. Supply and demand in international trade
export resources currency funds- vehicles, warehouses, means of communication, etc. Settlements for foreign trade operations are made by banking organizations, and the country's insurance business insures transportation and cargo.
Export import - trade balance foreign trade turnover .
At the lowest level of the market there is a trade in products of ferrous metallurgy, construction materials, textiles, garments, footwear and other products of light industry. On the Middle level trade in machine tools, vehicles, rubber and plastic products, products of basic chemistry and woodworking. On the highest level aerospace equipment, automated office equipment, information technology, electronics, pharmaceutical products, precision and measuring instruments, electrical equipment are sold. The markets of the last level are the most promising and develop at a much faster pace than other markets.
Quality goods are always more expensive and available only to countries with high per capita incomes. Lower quality goods are bought by countries with low per capita income. This predetermines the fact that countries with the same incomes have approximately the same structure of demand for finished products, and coinciding demand predetermines the most intensive exchange of finished goods between these countries.
14. Types of foreign trade policy
Foreign trade policy
Freedom of trade
Protectionism
The development of protectionist tendencies makes it possible to single out several forms of protectionism:
Selective - directed against individual countries or individual goods;
Sectoral - protects certain industries, primarily agriculture, within the framework of agrarian protectionism;
Collective - carried out by associations of countries in relation to countries that are not members of them;
Hidden - carried out by methods of domestic economic policy.
Protectionism as a theory of foreign economic behavior was established in XIX in. in competition with free trade (the theory and practice of free trade). The results of free trade between countries with different levels of economic development were especially fiercely criticized by supporters of protectionism. It was believed that the developed countries were primarily interested in free trade, but it hindered the creation of a national industry in relatively backward states.
In a developing national economy, protectionist measures are needed for protecting only new industries that have emerged as a result of scientific and technological progress from the competition of efficient foreign firms that have been operating on the world market for quite a long time. It was under the protection of protectionism that the formation and development of the national economy of modern developed countries took place.
During periods of serious aggravation of relations between states and increased international tension, protectionist measures are used to preserve the security of the state, which is facilitated by the production on its territory of all necessary, vital products.
Despite the clearly positive influence of protectionist measures on the development of the national economy and international trade, this method of regulating foreign trade relations has its opponents. As a rule, they distinguish the following arguments against protectionism .
1) protectionism is not beneficial from the point of view of national production, because it destroys the spirit of competition, develops privileges, entails the sclerosis of the economy;
2) it harms the interests of the consumer, because under conditions of customs bans, the selling prices of protected goods are rising. The consumer suffers from this;
3) he is a threat to international peace, because ignites inter-ethnic rivalry, weakens the bonds of interdependence between countries, the fruitful atmosphere of MRI and economic cooperation
4) protectionism is inherent in a certain illogicality - in pursuit of the goal of achieving a positive trade balance, protectionism restrains import operations, international partners also begin to act, as a result of which the volume of export operations is curtailed. This leads not to a positive balance, but to an imbalance.
5) in the conditions of protectionism, the sectors of the national economy protected by its barriers lose their incentives for development, since the mechanisms of competition fade, and the desire for progress and innovation is destroyed by the opportunities to preserve the achieved incomes and monopoly privileges.
6) protectionism has a certain multiplier effect- the technological interconnection between industries leads to the fact that when protectionist protection is introduced for some sectors of the technological chain, it is immediately required by industries technologically related to the protected ones.
7) under protectionism, the national economy may not fully use the advantages of international specialization - restrictions on cheaper imported goods do not allow them to be imported into the country.
Freedom of trade- a policy of minimal state intervention in foreign trade, which develops on the basis of free market forces of supply and demand. In this case, the latter is carried out and developed in accordance with the international division of labor and the modern version of the theory of comparative advantage. It is believed that such a policy leads to the most efficient distribution of resources on a global scale and to the maximization of world income. Despite the fact that the theory of free trade is quite convincing and attracts with many advantages, the policy of non-intervention of the state in international trade is practiced very carefully.
Positive aspects are already visible in the criticism of protectionism. Freedom of trade:
1) allows the distribution of products in accordance with the law on comparative production costs and entails an international specialization beneficial to all;
2) facilitates the development of competition and maintains the spirit of innovation not only among national producers, but also in relations with other countries;
3) allows you to expand the market. It leads to the development of mass production, and consequently to lower prices as a result of falling production costs, which is beneficial for the consumer. In addition, the risk of shortages associated with the tight localization of production and markets is reduced.
15. Foreign trade policy of states, its economic instruments
Foreign trade policy is a set of measures used by the state to regulate trade relations and relations with other countries. Although these measures are aimed at trade, they cannot but affect the direct producers and consumers within the country.
Depending on the extent of state intervention in international trade, there are protectionist and free trade policies .
Freedom of trade- a policy of minimal state intervention in foreign trade, which develops on the basis of free market forces of supply and demand.
Protectionism- state policy of protecting the domestic market from foreign competition through the use of tariff and non-tariff instruments of trade policy. This is the theory and practice of regulating foreign trade, aimed at protecting the subjects of the national economy from foreign competition.
FOREIGN TRADE POLICY- part of the state foreign economic policy, export and import policy, the impact on foreign trade through taxes, subsidies and direct restrictions on imports and exports.
The main task of the state in the field of international trade- help exporters to export as much of their products as possible, making their products more competitive in the international market, and limit imports, making foreign products less competitive in the domestic market.
Instruments of state regulation of international trade are divided into tariff- those based on the use of a customs tariff, and non-tariff- all other methods. The latter are divided into quantitative methods and methods of covert protectionism.
customs tariff defined:
An instrument of trade policy and state regulation of the domestic market of the country in its interaction with the world market;
A set of customs duty rates applied to goods transported across the border, systematized in accordance with the commodity nomenclature of foreign economic activity;
The specific rate of customs duty payable on the importation or exportation of a certain product into the customs territory of a country. In this case, the concept of a customs tariff completely coincides with the concept of a customs duty.
Import duty (tariff ) - This is the fee for bringing goods into the country. In this case, the price of imported goods on the domestic market rises above the world price. Since the value of the tariff on imports is added to the world price. Tariffs protect domestic producers in import-substituting industries, but domestic consumers lose out
In this situation, domestic producers have the opportunity to expand production, since they do not pay the tariff, and therefore, the "golden equality" of marginal cost and marginal income is achieved by domestic firms with a larger output of goods that are optimal for them.
Types of customs duties .
customs duty- a mandatory fee collected by the customs authorities when importing or exporting goods and which is a condition for import or export. Customs duties comply three main functions :
- fiscal, which applies to both import and export duties, since they are one of the items in the revenue side of the state budget;
- protectionist (defensive) ), related to import duties, since with their help the state protects local producers from unwanted foreign competition;
- balancing, which refers to export duties established to prevent the unwanted export of goods whose domestic prices are, for one reason or another, below world prices.
Classification of customs duties. By way of collection:
- ad valorem- are charged as a percentage of the customs value of taxable goods (for example, 20% of the customs value);
- specific- charged in the prescribed amount per unit of taxable goods ($10 per 1 ton);
- combined- combine both named types of customs taxation (20% of the customs value, but not more than 10 dollars per 1 ton).
According to the object of taxation:
- imported- duties that are imposed on imported goods when they are released for free circulation in the domestic market of the country. They are used to protect national producers.
- export- duties that are imposed on export goods when they are released outside the customs territory of the state;
- transit- duties that are imposed on goods transported through the territory of a given country in transit. They are used extremely rarely, mainly as a means of a trade war;
The nature:
- seasonal- duties that are applied for the operational regulation of international trade in seasonal products. First of all, agricultural. The validity period does not exceed several months;
- anti-dumping- duties that are applied in case of importation into the country of goods at a price lower than their normal price in the exporting country, if such import damages the national producers of such goods or hinders the organization and expansion of the national production of such goods;
- compensatory- duties imposed on the import of those goods in the production of which subsidies were used directly or indirectly, if their import causes damage to national producers of such goods.
Origin:
- autonomous- duties imposed on the basis of unilateral decisions of the state authorities of the country;
- conventional (contractual)- duties established on the basis of a bilateral or multilateral agreement, such as GATT or customs union agreements;
- preferential- duties at lower rates than the customary tariff generally in force, which are imposed on the basis of multilateral agreements on goods originating in developing countries. Their purpose is to support the economic development of these countries by expanding their exports.
By bet type:
- permanent- the customs tariff, the rates of which are set by the state authorities at a time and cannot be changed depending on the circumstances. The vast majority of countries in the world have fixed rate tariffs;
- variables- customs tariff, the rates of which may be changed in cases established by state authorities (when the level of world or domestic prices, the level of state subsidies changes). They are rarely used, for example, in Western Europe within the framework of a single agricultural policy.
By way of calculation:
- nominal- tariff rates specified in the customs tariff. They can only give a very general idea of the level of customs taxation to which a country is subjecting its imports and exports;
- effective- the actual level of customs duties on final goods, calculated taking into account the level of duties imposed on import units and parts of these goods.
Optimal tariff rate- the level of the tariff, which ensures the maximization of the level of national economic well-being. The optimal tariff has the following main features that must be taken into account when implementing the state foreign economic policy:
The optimal tariff rate is always positive and lies between 0 and the prohibitive tariff rate;
It is always relatively small and inversely proportional to the elasticity of imports;
An optimal tariff leads to an economic gain for one country, but to a loss for the international economy as a whole.
tariff quota . This is a kind of variable customs duties, the rates of which depend on the volume of imports of goods: when importing within certain quantities, it is taxed at the basic intra-quota tariff rate, when a certain volume is exceeded, imports are taxed at a higher super-quota rate.
In addition to tariff methods of state regulation of international trade, governments widely use non-tariff methods - quantitative, hidden and financial. Most of them, unlike customs tariffs, are poorly quantifiable and therefore poorly reflected in statistics. It is this characteristic of non-tariff methods that enables governments to use some or a combination of them to achieve their trade policy objectives.
One of the following indices is commonly used to measure non-tariff methods:
- frequency index- an index showing the share of tariff positions covered by non-tariff restrictions;
- trade coverage index- shows the value share of exports or imports covered by non-tariff restrictions.
- price impact index- the ratio of the world market price and the domestic price of a product whose import or export is subject to non-tariff restrictions.
The government more often prefers non-tariff methods, because politically they are considered more acceptable because they are not an additional tax burden for the population. In addition, they are more convenient to achieve the desired result. Finally, non-tariff restrictions are almost not regulated by international agreements, and using them governments feel freer than when introducing tariff restrictions, which are regulated by the WTO.
Quantity restrictions- an administrative form of non-tariff state regulation of trade turnover, which determines the quantity and range of goods allowed for export or import. They can be applied by decision of the government of one country or on the basis of agreements coordinating trade in a particular product.
character.
Quota- a quantitative non-tariff measure to restrict the export or import of goods by a certain amount or amount for a certain period of time. By direction their quota actions are divided into:
Export - are introduced either in accordance with international stabilization agreements that establish the share of each country in the total export of a certain product, or by the country's government to prevent the export of goods that are in short supply on the domestic market;
Import - introduced by the national government to protect local producers, achieve a balanced trade balance, regulate supply and demand in the domestic market, as well as in response to the discriminatory trade policies of other states.
By reach quotas are divided into:
Global - are set for the export and import of a certain product for a certain period of time, regardless of which country it is exported from. Their meaning is to ensure the necessary level of domestic consumption;
Individual - set within the global quota quota of each country that exports or imports goods. They are established on the basis of bilateral agreements that give the main advantages in exports or imports to those countries with which there are close mutual political, economic or other interests.
Closely related to quotas is another type of state regulation of foreign economic activity, called licensing. Licensing - regulation of foreign economic activity through permits issued by government agencies for the export or import of goods in established quantities for a certain period of time. It can be an integral part of the quota process or be an independent regulatory tool. In the first case, the license is only a document confirming the right to import or export goods within the received quota. In the second case the license takes on a number of specific forms (single, general, global, automatic). Licenses are distributed using the following mechanisms:
Auction, which is considered the most cost-effective way of distributing licenses, capable of generating revenues for the state treasury comparable to revenues from customs duties on the same product;
The system of explicit preferences - the assignment by the government of licenses to certain firms in proportion to the volume of their imports for the previous period or in proportion to the structure of demand among national importers;
Distribution of licenses on a non-price basis - the issuance of licenses by the government to those firms that have demonstrated their ability to export or import in the most efficient way.
A quantitative restriction of imports into a country can be achieved not only through the actions of its government to introduce an import tariff or import quotas, but also as a result of measures taken by the government of the exporting country within the so-called. "voluntary" export restrictions. "Voluntary" export restriction- quantitative restriction of exports based on the obligation of one of the trading partners to limit or at least not expand the volume of exports, adopted in the framework of a formal intergovernmental or informal agreement on the establishment of quotas for the export of goods
Technical barriers - hidden methods of trade policy arising from the fact that national technical, administrative and other rules and regulations are designed to prevent the importation of goods from abroad. The most common technical barriers are requirements to comply with national standards, obtain quality certificates for imported products, specific packaging and labeling of goods, compliance with certain sanitary standards, including environmental protection measures, compliance with complicated customs formalities and requirements of protection laws. consumers and more.
Internal taxes and fees - hidden methods of trade policy aimed at increasing the domestic price of imported goods and thereby reducing its competitiveness in the domestic market.
Public Procurement Policy - a hidden method of trade policy that requires government agencies and businesses to buy certain goods only from national firms, even though.
Requirement for the content of local components- a hidden method of the trade policy of the state, which legislates the share of the final product that must be produced by national producers if such a product is intended for sale in the domestic market. Developing countries use this method as part of the import substitution policy, developed countries - in order to maintain employment levels.
Financial methods of trade policy. If the government considers it necessary to stimulate the export of national producers, then it can provide them with subsidies from the budget in one form or another.
Subsidies - cash payments aimed at supporting domestic producers and indirectly discriminating against imports. By nature of payments they are divided into:
- straight - direct payments to the exporter after he has completed an export operation in the amount of the difference between his costs and the income he received. Since the beginning of the 60s, they have been used in the export of ships, aviation equipment and other expensive industrial export goods. Now prohibited by WTO rules;
- indirect- hidden subsidies for exporters through the provision of tax incentives, preferential terms for insurance, loans at a rate below the market rate, the return of import duties, etc.;
Domestic subsidy - the most disguised financial method of trade policy and discrimination against imports, providing for budgetary financing of domestic production of goods that compete with imported ones.
Export subsidy - a financial non-tariff method of trade policy that provides for budgetary payments to national exporters, which allows selling goods to foreign buyers at a lower price than in the domestic market, and thereby boosting exports. The fundamental difference between an import tariff and an export subsidy as a means of trade policy is that the former raises the domestic price of imported goods, while the latter raises the domestic price of exported goods.
Export lending- a method of financial non-tariff foreign trade policy, which provides for financial incentives by the state for the development of exports by national firms. It may take the form:
Subsidizing loans to national exporters - loans issued by state-owned banks at a below-market interest rate;
State loans to foreign importers, subject to the obligatory condition of purchasing goods only from firms of the country that granted such a loan (tied loan);
Insurance of export risks of national exporters, which include commercial and political risks;
Export credits are:
Short term And - for up to 1 year, are used to credit the export of consumer goods and raw materials;
medium-term - for a period of 1 to 5 years, are used to credit the export of machinery and equipment;
long-term - for a period of more than 5 years, are used for lending to the export of investment goods and large projects.
Subsidizing exports in order to speed them up in the face of increased competition can take extreme forms aimed at suppressing competitors and ousting them from the market.
Dumping - a method of financial non-tariff trade policy, which consists in promoting goods to the foreign market by reducing export prices below the normal price level existing in these countries. It can take one of the following forms:
Sporadic dumping is the episodic sale of surplus stocks of goods to the foreign market at reduced prices. Occurs when the domestic production of goods exceeds the capacity of the domestic market;
Intentional dumping is a temporary deliberate reduction in export prices in order to force competitors out of the market and subsequently establish monopoly prices.
Permanent dumping - the constant export of goods at a price below the fair price.
Reverse dumping is the overpricing of exports compared to the selling prices of the same goods on the domestic market.
Mutual dumping - countertrade of two countries in the same product at low prices.
The necessary conditions for dumping are:
Differences in the elasticity of demand for a product in different countries - domestic demand should be less price elastic than demand abroad;
A situation of imperfect competition that would allow the manufacturer to set and dictate prices;
Market segmentation, i.e. the ability of the producer to fence off the domestic market, where he sells goods at high prices, from the external market, where he does it at lower prices.
Dumping is prohibited both by international rules within the WTO and by national anti-dumping duties in the event that dumping is discovered. The latter is understood as a temporary fee in the amount of the difference between the selling prices of goods in the domestic and foreign markets, introduced by the importing country in order to neutralize the negative consequences of unfair price competition based on dumping.
16. International trade its structure and dynamics
INTERNATIONAL TRADE - the totality of trade relations, foreign trade relations of all countries of the world trading with each other.
The need for the emergence and development of a system of relations for the international exchange of goods and services is due to many reasons. Virtually no country has the amount and range of resources needed to fully meet the entire system of needs. Each country has a limited amount of labor and capital, allowing it to produce various goods that are part of the GDP. If for the production of any product in the country there are the best conditions and costs are minimal, then by increasing its production and selling abroad, you can buy goods that cannot be produced domestically or whose production is too expensive. That's why reasons for the existence of foreign trade relations , and consequently, the modern world market always remains an international division of labor and mutual exchange.
The modern world market is a sphere of stable commodity-money relations for the exchange of produced national products. The subjects of these relations can be states, individual organizations and enterprises, as well as private individuals. As well as within the country, in the structure of the world market one can single out markets for goods and services, markets for labor, capital, and, in addition, markets for the achievements of science and technology. As part of the latter, information markets are becoming increasingly important in modern conditions. In addition, it is possible to single out individual markets on a regional basis - European, Asian, South American, Far Eastern, etc.
In order for a country to trade on the world market, it must have export resources, i.e. stocks of competitive goods and services that are in demand on the world market, currency funds or other means of payment for imports, as well as a developed foreign trade infrastructure- vehicles, warehouses, means of communication, etc. Settlements for foreign trade operations are made by banking organizations, and the country's insurance business insures transportation and cargo. Of course, if necessary, you can use the services of the infrastructure of other countries, but, as a rule, they are very expensive, and each state involved in the world market seeks to create its own infrastructure.
Two counter flows of goods and services form the exports and imports of each country Export- is the sale and export of goods abroad, import - is the purchase and importation of goods from abroad. The difference between the value estimates of exports and imports forms trade balance, and the sum of their estimates is foreign trade turnover .
In the world market, as in any other, demand and supply are formed and the desire for market equilibrium is maintained. To understand how this happens, consider a hypothetical example. Suppose two countries produce and consume the same product, but the resources for its production and the need for it are different.
The world market always balances supply and demand for - exported and imported goods, and world price lies between the minimum and maximum internal equilibrium prices.
17. International regulation of foreign trade and the World Trade Organization
GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT)- A multilateral agreement adopted in 1948 between many countries of the world, containing rules for concluding intercountry trade contracts and conducting international trade operations. The parties to the agreement provide each other with favorable conditions for mutual trade (most favored nation treatment in trade). The agreement is designed to eliminate unnecessary restrictions and discrimination in foreign trade. In 1995 it was transformed into the WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION.
The Geneva Treaty on the sucking of GATT was signed in 1947 by 23 countries and in 1948 entered into force. Its main principles are the principles of non-discrimination and liberalization of the conditions of international trade.
To belong to the GATT, countries must comply with the about the most favored nation treatment . This is a condition enshrined in international trade agreements, which provides for the provision by the contracting parties to each other of all the rights, advantages and benefits that any third state enjoys and / or will enjoy. The MFN principle is included in the terms of the WTO and is considered the basis for creating a non-discriminatory regime in international trade. It means that if a country, say the USA, reduces the customs tariff for one country, for example Australia, from 20% to 10% on woolen sweaters, then the USA makes the same concession to all other countries of the world.
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade determined the permissible amounts of customs duties and export subsidies, resolved disputes between countries on mutual trade through intergovernmental multilateral agreements, and brought countries that violated the terms of the agreement to economic responsibility.
The main activity of the GATT is the organization rounds or rounds of negotiations(named at the place of their holding) to conclude multilateral agreements on the reduction of customs tariffs and the mitigation of non-tariff barriers for their participants. Each round bears the name of the city or state in which the participants met. A total of eight rounds were held, as a result of which the average customs duties were reduced by 10 times from 40% in the middle 20th century up to 4% to the mop of the 90s.
By 1996, about 130 countries were members of the GATT. Since January 1996, GATT has replaced World Trade Organization (WTO). Its founders were 81 countries. The formation of the WTO reflects the specifics of the current stage in the development of international trade, when the scope of WTO regulation extends to the international exchange of services and intellectual property, control and protection of investments.
Trade unions and free trade zones are the initial stages (steps) of the formation of integration associations. The first are based on preferential trade agreements. They are signed either on a bilateral basis between individual states, or between an already existing integration group and a separate country or group of countries. According to them, countries provide more favorable treatment to each other than is granted to third countries. At the same time, no interstate bodies are created to manage preferential agreements.
Examples of trade unions are:
1) “Agreement on cooperation and partnership between the EU and the countries of the former USSR”, the member countries of which are the EU, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia, Ukraine.
2) Association Agreement with the EU (Eastern European countries - former members of the CMEA, as well as the Baltic countries).
3) Enterprise for All America Initiative (USA, most Latin American and Central American states).
Free trade zones are the second level of integration, which envisages not a simple reduction, but a complete abolition of customs tariffs in mutual trade while maintaining national customs tariffs in relations with third countries. In most cases, the terms of the free trade zone apply to all goods, except for agricultural products. A free trade area can be coordinated by a small interstate secretariat located in one of the member countries. But more often it does without it, coordinating the main parameters of its development at periodic meetings of the heads of the relevant departments.
Examples of free trade zones:
1) European Free Trade Association (Austria, Finland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Sweden)
2) Baltic Free Trade Zone (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania)
3) North American FTA (Canada, Mexico, USA)
4) Free Trade Agreement of ASEAN countries (Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand).
Free trade zones – These are areas not covered by the state customs regime. In particular, in the United States, legislation allowed the creation of free trade zones at each official port of arrival. In world practice, free trade zones have become widespread general and special purpose(specialized)
18. The role of TNCs in international economic relations
transnational corporations- a form of international association of capital, in which the parent company, having its branches in many countries, coordinates and integrates their activities. The country in which the parent company is located is called the home country. This is usually the state in which the corporation originally originated. The manager of one of the IBM affiliates classified as transnational only those firms that have five characteristics:
1) the company operates simultaneously in many states (and not in 2-3) with different levels of economic development;
2) its foreign branches solve the issues of reconstruction and development, have industrial, trade and service enterprises;
3) executives of branches - local citizens who are well acquainted with the situation;
4) the governing bodies of the parent company consist of people of different nationalities;
5) the property of the company belongs to citizens of different countries.
The main purpose of the activity of TNCs, as well as any other business structure, is to make a profit. The preference for obtaining it abroad is due to the following circumstances:
Uneven distribution of economic resources, which causes the transfer of national production to areas where the availability of resources is higher;
The difference in tastes among consumers in different countries. This creates incentives for their satisfaction with the enterprises of the country, which has great opportunities for this;
The presence of technological advantages for a firm in a given country over similar industries in other countries, allowing it to transfer the production of obsolete products on the domestic market abroad (where they still retain their novelty);
The effect of the positive effect of scale, which determines the creation of larger enterprises than the capacity of the domestic market allows;
the growth of protectionism, forcing competition on the basis of the export of capital, not goods.
In accordance with the requirements of scientific and technological progress, changes are taking place in the organizational structure of TNCs, and, above all, in the geography of location. If in the 1940s and 1950s these were mainly developing countries, then in the 1970s and 1980s we are talking about industrialized countries with significant scientific and technical potential. Among the economically backward countries, those that have remained attractive to TNCs are: cheap labor; low taxation; proximity to sources of raw materials; weak state regulation; the possibility of exporting environmentally harmful industries to them; stable political environment, etc. In addition to the geography of location, modern trends in the development of TNCs are characterized by the following circumstances:
An increasing degree of dependence of the parent company on its external enterprises, i.e. the growing separation of TNCs from their national soil;
The corresponding growth of transnational banks, which create branches in other countries, buy local credit institutions there;
A positive attitude towards TNCs on the part of the countries hosting their branches;
Increasing the general level of qualification, culture, education of the total worker of TNCs;
The new nature of relations between parent firms and their branches, determined by the decentralization of research and development work.
19. International labor migration causes and directions
Under
Immigration - Emigration - legal illegal (from
scale of disposals -
the scale of arrivals -
migration balance,
gross migration ,
The first mass movement of workers in modern times was the purposeful importation of slaves from Africa to the Americas, which was carried out by force.
That. according to geographic areas external and internal migration of the population. Under the internal refers to the movement of population between cities and regions of one country, and under the external - from one country to another. In its turn external migration is divided into intercontinental and intracontinental.
In modern conditions, international labor migration is characterized as a natural global socio-economic phenomenon that has deep roots in the economic, social and political spheres. What reasons motivate people to move from one country to another? Guest workers in Russia
First of all, the migration of labor is associated with the development of large-scale machine production, which predetermined the uneven socio-economic development of different countries.
International labor migration is primarily due to eq onomic reasons The main ones are:
Different levels of economic development of individual countries. The labor force moves from countries with lower gross domestic product (GDP) per capita to countries with higher living standards;
Different degree of provision of countries with labor resources, which affects the volume of production, differences in wage levels. If a country has an excess of labor resources, this creates an incentive for emigration;
Foreign activities of transnational corporations (TNCs), contributing to the development of international labor migration. In this case, there is a movement of labor resources to jobs in foreign affiliates of TNCs;
The presence of unemployment in a country that increases labor migration.
In addition to socio-economic, there are other reasons for the migration of the population:
Political instability of regimes or flight from political persecution, racial, religious and national discrimination;
Military circumstances - evacuation, re-evacuation, etc.;
Expansion of the international information system, which makes people aware of the wide socio-economic opportunities of other countries;
Development and cheapening of vehicles.
20. Features of modern world labor markets
World labor market - it is a system of economic mechanisms, norms, institutions that ensure the interaction of demand for labor and its supply at the interstate level.
Modern world labor markets have a number of features.
1. Growth in international labor migration. At the beginning of 1995, there were more than 35 million migrant workers in the world compared to 3.2 million in 1960.
2. Multidirectionality of the main flows of labor migration. This is migration to developed countries with market economies from developing countries; cross labor migration within the developed countries of the world; labor migration between developing countries; migration of highly qualified personnel from developed to developing countries.
3. Increase in the share of youth, women and children in the migration process. Thus, in Belgium and the Netherlands, the share of young people in the total number of migrants reaches 50%. In other countries, it is also significant and often exceeds the proportion of youth among the indigenous population. The share of women in labor migration in Western Europe increased from 30% in the 1960s to 40-48.3% in 1980.
4. Increasing the length of stay of migrants in the country of employment.
5. Since the 1980s, there has been a slight decrease in the degree of activity of international labor migration, which was associated with the transition to a policy of restricting this process and the deterioration of the economic situation.
6. Migration of scientists, highly qualified specialists from various regions of the world to developed countries with a market economy, as well as from these countries to developing countries.
7. Formation of a "black market" of labor in modern centers of attraction for foreign labor. " Black market" labor- this is a mechanism for using illegal labor migration in order to increase profits through the use of cheap labor. The scale of illegal migration is significant. For example, in the United States, the total number of clandestine immigrants ranges from 2 to 13 million people.
8. Expansion of Russia's participation in international labor migration.
21. Positive and negative results of international labor migration
22. Features of modern international labor migration and its regulation
Migration- a Latin word meaning movement, relocation. This word refers to the movement of people, animals, capital, chemical elements in the earth's crust, etc. The migration of the population that interests us is the movement of people across the borders of certain territories in connection with a change of permanent place of residence or with a return to it.
Under international labor migration refers to the movement of labor resources between countries and their use outside national borders for a certain time. Since labor is inseparable from a person, one often speaks of labor migration. International labor migration- intercountry movement of the able-bodied population for reasons that do not imply a final change of residence.
In recent years, international labor migration has been studied within the framework of the theory of human capital. Differences in economic growth rates are associated with its movement between countries.
International labor migration includes migration and emigration flows. Immigration - movement of the able-bodied population from abroad to this country. Emigration - movement of the able-bodied population from the given country abroad. Such movement is carried out with the aim of most effectively solving the economic and social problems of immigrants and emigrants. Re-emigration (reverse emigration)- return of emigrants to their permanent place of residence. From the point of view of compliance with the norms of the legislation in force in the country, there are legal labor migration (without violating legal norms) and illegal (from violation of the law).
Various indicators are used to assess the size of labor migration:
scale of disposals - the number of emigrants who left the country for a certain period in order to find a job;
the scale of arrivals - the number of immigrants who arrived in a country in a given period in search of work;
migration balance, or net migration - the difference between the number of arrivals and the number of departures in the country in the study period. The balance can be either positive or negative. It is expressed in relative terms (per 100 or per 1000 inhabitants), as well as in absolute terms;
gross migration , or total migration - the sum of the number of arrivals and the number of departures in the country, region for a certain period.
Regulation of immigration. Most host countries use selective approach in the regulation of immigration. Its meaning lies in the fact that the state does not prevent the entry of those categories of workers that are needed in a given country, restricting entry to everyone else. The list of desirable immigrants varies from country to country, but they usually fall into one of the following categories:
Workers who are ready to perform heavy, non-prestigious, harmful, dirty and unskilled work for minimal pay - construction, auxiliary (in repair shops), seasonal (for harvesting in greenhouses), shift workers (drilling oil wells), municipal (garbage and sewage collection) workers;
Specialists for new and promising industries - programmers, highly specialized engineers, bank employees;
Representatives of rare professions - diamond cutters, art restorers, doctors practicing non-traditional methods of treatment;
World-famous specialists - musicians, artists, scientists, athletes, doctors, writers;
Large businessmen moving their activities to the host country, investing capital and creating new jobs.
23. Features of modern capital migration
International capital migration - one of the characteristic phenomena of the world economy is the movement of capital between countries, including exports, imports and its functioning abroad. Its causes are ambiguously interpreted by scientists of various areas of economic thought. Approaches to explaining this process evolve with changes in economic conditions, scale, forms, mechanism, and consequences of the international movement of capital.
The international movement of capital is one of the important tools in the competitive struggle of companies. Capital markets play an exceptional role in servicing farm restructuring. At the same time, they can contribute to the deepening of disproportions in the world economy.
Internationalization of capital markets connected primarily with the cross-border association of securities markets and to a lesser extent - markets for direct investment, bank loans and deposits.
The leading force behind the revitalization of international operations is savings institutionalization process , their concentration in the hands of non-bank credit institutions. The total assets of the top 300 US institutional investors rose from 30% of GDP in 1975 to over 110% of GDP in 1993. Similar asset growth has occurred in other countries. The process of institutionalization of savings contributes to the international diversification of portfolio investments, the internationalization of capital markets.
Starting from the last third of this century, credit markets began to function not as local structures, but as aggregates united by common patterns of development, which allows us to talk about the formation of a global credit and financial system, including the movement of bond, bank loans, portfolio, direct investment, as well as economic help.
25.International financial and credit institutions and their role in international economic relations
The output of production beyond national borders, the development of the process of internationalization brought to the international arena and credit relations. International credit relations mediate the movement of capital through the provision of loans, commodity resources on terms of urgency, repayment, payment.
Leading sectors world market of loan capital are the world money market and the world capital market. institutional base market of loan capital are intermediaries between lenders and borrowers of different countries. Intermediaries various financial institutions act, such as transnational banks, stock exchanges, etc., which accumulate temporarily free funds of banks, insurance companies, private firms and other economic entities from different countries. Government agencies, international organizations, transnational corporations, etc. act as borrowers.
The international loan capital market performs the following tasks arising from the functions of credit:
redistributive function;
The function of saving distribution costs;
The function of accelerating the concentration and centralization of captal;
The function of lending to states to pay off balance of payments deficits.
In the struggle for financial markets, monetary organizations use credit discrimination and credit blockade. Credit discrimination used in cases where it is necessary to exert political or economic pressure on certain countries or firms.
A more stringent measure is credit blockade, i.e. refusal to provide loans to certain countries. Most often, this measure is carried out unofficially through the denial of loans for various reasons, but sometimes it is formalized in official government documents as an addition to the economic blockade. In particular, the US economic blockade of India as a result of ongoing underground nuclear explosions will also entail a credit blockade on the part of the largest American and joint monetary and credit organizations.
Regulation of international credit relations carried out by various intergovernmental organizations.
International Monetary Fund (IMF) established in 1944 to regulate monetary and credit relations and assist member countries through the provision of foreign currency loans. The capital of the IMF is made up of contributions from members made by subscription, with each country having its own quota that determines the number of votes in voting, the amount of contributions and the possibility of using the Fund's resources. Since 1962, the IMF has used both borrowed funds and permanent or temporary special funds. The IMF pursues a policy of weakening the role of gold in the world monetary system, carries out interstate regulation of exchange rates, promotes the removal of foreign exchange restrictions, coordinates international credit, regulates relations over external debt, monitors the macroeconomic policies of member countries and the development of the world economy. The IMF provides short-term lending to its member countries in case of difficulties associated with a deficit in the balance of payments. It provides loans to treasuries, central banks in the form of selling foreign currency for the national currency of the borrowing countries. Loans are repaid by redeeming the national currency for foreign currency.
On the The World Bank, which includes IBRD and International Development Association ( MAP ), engaged in the issuance of soft loans, was entrusted with the financing of economic development. If the World Bank borrows and lends, the IMF is more like a credit union whose resources are dedicated to helping member countries in difficult times. Both organizations work closely together. In modern conditions, stable economic development is possible only if an effective financial policy is pursued. As experience shows, the balance of payments deficit arises not only due to a temporary lack of liquidity, but also due to structural imbalances in the economy, the elimination of which requires long-term financing. Therefore, the IMF and the World Bank are implementing concessional lending programs for developing countries that are carrying out large-scale economic reforms.
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) created in 1944 simultaneously with the IMF. At first, his activities were aimed at restoring and developing the economies of European countries, and since the mid-1950s, he has stimulated the development of market relations in the liberated young national states and has contributed to the deepening of integration processes. Its resources are formed at the expense of the statutory fund, formed by subscription of the member countries to the shares of the IBRD and from the proceeds from the sale of bonded loans. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development specializes in long-term lending to stimulate the economic development of IBRD member countries. The first loans were presented to finance the economies of Western Europe, which were destroyed during the Second World War. In modern conditions, it lends mainly to developing countries. Loans are provided at a fairly high interest rate, both to public and private enterprises, with government guarantees and on terms close to those of private commercial banks. The main task of this organization is lending to specific objects, among which social ones have prevailed in recent years. Similar functions are performed by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), established in 1990, and regional banks; Inter-American, African, Asian. In addition to these, international monetary and credit relations are served by dozens of other intergovernmental organizations aimed at their development.
26.World capital market pricing principles
Since the export of capital is the movement of money abroad, either for the purpose of extracting entrepreneurial profits or for the purpose of obtaining interest, it is customary to distinguish between the export of capital in two forms: entrepreneurial and loan . Export of entrepreneurial capital means investment in the economy of a country, i.e. investment for profit. Export of loan capital- international loans and credits (as a rule, long-term), bringing loan interest to the creditor country. Thus, we can talk about the global capital market, which in turn is part of the global financial market. The latter, like any national market, in addition to the capital market includes the money market.
The world money market determines the ratio of supply and demand for short-term means of payment. This is usually an international commercial loan provided for the purchase of goods and services. The world capital market regulates the movement of long-term assets in the form of investments and long-term loans.
Long-term lending- These are loans from banks, the state to buyers of machinery and equipment, as well as loans from foreign governments and individual firms.
Investment financing involves investing in the creation of productive capital abroad. The main subjects of this process are private business and the state.
27. International investment and savings
The most representative private investment . Investors in this case are individuals, banks, insurance, investment companies, etc. Investments are carried out by them in two forms: portfolio and direct.
Portfolio investment - these are securities that appear in the portfolio of the country that provided the capital. These primarily include stocks and bonds placed in large financial centers. In this case, when buying securities, control is not established.
Direct investments give the investor the right to control the management of the borrower's enterprises. In most cases, it is primarily about investments at the expense of own funds. Among them:
Investments of companies in their foreign branches and branches;
Investments of citizens of a given country in enterprises created by them to conduct business abroad;
Investments of financial groups in foreign companies (in whose management they hold a dominant position) to secure their equity participation in their capital.
Since the main thing in the implementation of direct investment is not ownership, but control, insofar as their sign is the presence of dominant positions in management. To determine these positions, the International Monetary Fund put forward three criteria:
Investor ownership of 50% or more of voting capital;
Concentration of 25% or more of the capital in the hands of one owner;
The dominant role of foreigners in the practice of determining the policy of the enterprise.
The movement of private investment is characterized by movement in the following areas:
but) between countries with highly developed industry, where there is a movement of portfolio investment;
b) to countries that already have a fairly significant industrial potential (Austria, Canada, South Africa, Brazil, Mexico), where direct investment is more significant than portfolio investment;
c) to countries with an underdeveloped economy, but rich in raw materials, where only direct capital investments are directed.
Direct investment in modern conditions has a number of characteristic features. First of all, it is necessary to note the increase in direct investment in comparison with other forms of capital movement.
Direct public investment include:
Entrepreneurial activity of the state in foreign territory;
Purchase of shares of private companies in order to control them;
Investment in colonial possessions or protectorates.
source world investments, as well as national ones, are saving. The equilibrium of world investment and saving determines the world equilibrium rate of interest. In fact, this is the real interest rate prevailing in the world capital market. At the same time, the equality of national investment and savings is not necessary.
Levels of world savings and savings. Savings and savings are inextricably linked. Saving usually precedes accumulation and represents the formation of money capital, in which credit institutions play an important role. The level of global savings has changed dramatically in the last three decades. It gradually increased in the 1950s and 1960s, increased sharply in the 1970s due to the energy crisis, and dropped significantly in the 1980s. When calculated on the basis of the purchasing power of currencies, the world savings rate was 23% in 1960-72, 25% in 1973-1980 and 22.5% in 1981-1995. The decrease in the share of savings is primarily due to their reduction in the public sector of industrialized countries. In many industrialized countries, the savings rate of the private sector remained within 20% in the 1960s and 1980s, the public sector savings rate fell from 4% to 1/2% and in recent years has dropped to almost zero. In the opposite direction, the process of savings developed in developing countries, where the savings rate increased from 19% in 1970 to 27% in 1996. high growth rates. In the 1990s, the savings rate dropped significantly there.
The accumulation of capital is manifested in the increase in capital investments and production assets. Average annual investment volumes, in the world economy changed according to the dynamics of world savings, with the exception of the 70s. From 1950 to 1970 the investment quota grew steadily, reaching almost 27% of GDP in 1973. Then it fell to 20-22% in 1983, after which it began to increase again, but did not reach the level of the early 1970s. The decrease in the rate of accumulation in the mid-1970s and early 1980s occurred in countries in which, as a result of the energy and raw material crisis, large amounts of labor instruments turned out to be inefficient, despite the fact that they belonged to the samples of the late 60s. Value transfer proved to be difficult due to falling capacity utilization. The lack of equipment on the market that would be effective under that system of relative prices was an important reason for the formation of an investment pause in the mid-1970s. In general, changes in the dynamics of world capital investment corresponded to the movement of the business cycle, they increased during periods of upswing and decreased during downturns.
There were other reasons as well. In the world economy in the 80s there was an increase in real discount rates. They rose from a low and often negative real value to the highest level in history, which persisted until the late 1980s. The restrictive monetary policy of the industrial countries, as well as the huge US federal budget deficit, which was financed by savings from other countries, contributed to the increase in real rates. The high level of real interest rates was not accompanied by an increase in the savings rate. It declined in all industrialized countries in the 1980s.
Changes in the investment quota are affected by shifts in prices. If the prices of investment goods fall relative to consumer prices, then more investment can be made in real terms for the same level of savings. Since 1973, the prices of investment goods have fallen relative to other goods and services, but the real value of capital investment could be maintained with a decrease in the share of investment spending. Therefore, the value of the investment quota decreases less if measurements are taken at constant prices and exchange rates, compared with calculations at current prices. But even in this case, a downward trend was noted in the 1980s.
In the world economy as a whole, the levels of savings and investment are identical.
Sources of savings and savings. At macro- and micro-(levels, savings and accumulation are mobilized from various sources of economic entities. These are depreciation and retained earnings of companies. In the structure of accumulation of companies, the share of expenses for the replacement of consumed fixed capital (depreciation) pretty stable. On average, it makes up slightly more than half of investments, increasing during periods of crisis and decreasing during economic upswings. Net savings, formed at the expense of retained earnings, directly increase the production assets of companies. Firms with weak access to the loan capital market tend to maintain a high level of retained earnings and pay less dividends. Although companies provide the bulk of capital investment in industrialized countries (50-80%), their net 17% of total capital investment.
Household savings in industrialized countries in the 80-90s decreased. This trend has been driven by a number of factors. In particular, the liberalization of consumer credit has led to a decrease in savings for large purchases. The role of households in savings varies dramatically from country to country. In the second half of the 1980s, they accounted for 9% of gross capital investment in the UK to 57% in Italy.
Since the late 1980s, there has been an increase state savings , which was determined by a decrease in the need for the issuance of government loans. A sharp increase in budget deficits occurred in the 70s due to an increase in spending on military purposes, social security, while reducing business activity and taxation.
In developing countries, domestic savings are also the most important source of replenishment of productive assets, providing over 95% of investment. The domestic savings rate has fallen significantly in countries experiencing difficulties in servicing external debt. Analyzing trends and patterns of savings in developing countries is difficult due to the difficulty of obtaining relevant information on households, the business and public sectors.
28.Monetary system and its evolution European and Jamaican monetary systems
European Monetary System (EMS)- the zone of coordinated swimming in relation to the dollar of national currencies created by the EU members in order to ensure their greater stability. The main parameters of the EVS are:
Limitation of exchange rate fluctuations within 2.25% in each direction from the agreed central rate of each currency to the ecu;
Creation of a European currency unit - ECU (European Currency Unit) - a unit of account, the rate of which is determined as a weighted average of the exchange rates of EU member states;
Establishment of the European Monetary Cooperation Fund. It was created through contributions to: provide temporary financial support to EU member states; financing the balance of payments deficit; making settlements on foreign exchange interventions of member countries in order to support exchange rates.
The mechanism for regulating exchange rates within the framework of the EMU was called "snake in the tunnel" due to the fact that courses could only swim within limited limits. If the deviation of the exchange rate from the central parity reached 75% of the size established by the agreement, the country had to take a number of measures to prevent the exchange rate of its currency from going beyond the established limits.
In June 1989, the Commission of the European Communities adopted a decision on the transition of the European EU member states to a monetary and economic union. This transition was supposed to be carried out in three stages. On the first, which began in July 1990, there was a complete elimination of restrictions on the movement of capital between the EU countries and a gradual convergence of key macroeconomic indicators of their economies began. On the second, which began on the basis of the agreement on the European Union (Maastricht Agreement), which entered into force in November 1993, the member countries took the path of further deepening monetary integration on the basis of an agreement on the convergence of national economies and the creation of a mechanism for multilateral monitoring of this process. Transition to third stage began in 1999 and is associated with the introduction single European currency and education European Central Bank .
The second stage, which lasted from 1993 to 1999, was key in moving towards a full monetary union. In this period:
Convergence requirements were introduced - tough indicators of farm convergence in the areas of public finances, long-term interest rates and exchange rates. To qualify for participation in a monetary union, a country must meet the following requirements: the budget deficit must not exceed 3% of GDP, and gross government debt must not exceed 60% of GDP; consumer price inflation must not exceed inflation in the three lowest inflation member countries by more than 1.5 percentage points; interest rates on long-term government debt securities should not exceed by more than 2 percentage points the interest rates in the three member countries with the lowest inflation;
The European Monetary Institute (EMI) was created - an organization of the EU countries responsible for coordinating monetary policy between them, as well as for preparing the creation of the European Central Bank and developing a common monetary policy;
Creation of an economic policy oversight mechanism, which is formed from the Council of the EU and the EMI.
The transition to a single currency also includes three stages. First lasted from the moment of determining the participants in the monetary union until the mutual fixing of their exchange rates. After that, the EMU, the ECU and other mechanisms were abolished, and their functions were transferred to the European System of Central Banks (ESCB), in which the European Central Bank plays the main role. The euro (single European currency) is used as a non-cash currency. Second phase will last from the moment of fixing exchange rates until the national currencies are withdrawn from circulation, along with which the non-cash euro will circulate. Third stage should begin no later than January 1, 2002 and will be marked by the issuance of the euro into cash circulation in the form of banknotes and coins. The exchange of the ecu for the euro will take place at the rate of 1:1, i.e. the exchange rate of the euro against the other currencies of the participating countries will correspond to their exchange rate against the ecu.
29.The concept of the exchange rate and its determinants
30. Exchange rate regulation
The formation of the exchange rate of the national currency in a foreign one is called currency quote. In this case, the exchange rate of the national currency can be set in the form as direct quotes ( 1,10,100 units foreign currency = x units. national currency. Formula Rb 1 = ( x ) $ 1 ), so reverse quote ( 1,10,100 units national currency = x units. foreign currency. Formula $ 1 = Rb x (1/ x )). There is also cross quote- the expression of the rates of two currencies to each other through the rate of each of them in relation to a third currency, usually the US dollar.
Exchange rate quotes also have a time dimension. According to this criterion, there are: spot rate- the rate at which currencies are exchanged within no more than two business days from the moment an agreement on the rate is reached; forward rate- an agreed rate at which currencies are exchanged at a certain point in the future, more than three days after reaching an agreement on the rate.
Comparability of national currencies on a cost basis, in fact, expresses the ability to compare the cost of various goods produced in different countries, or rather, using the exchange rate to compare the prices of goods in different countries. As a result, the profitability of buying goods or investing capital in the economy abroad is determined in comparison with this country.
The exchange rate depends on many factors, and primarily on the supply and demand of currency in the market, therefore, all the factors that affect the supply and demand of a currency also affect its exchange rate. These factors include:
High growth rates of national income in a given country. The result of this will be an increase in the income of individual citizens, an increase in the aggregate demand for goods, including imported ones, which will lead to an increase in demand for foreign currency and an increase in its exchange rate;
Similarly, there will be a change in the preferences of consumers who are oriented towards imported goods;
High inflation rates in the country depreciate the national currency, and its exchange rate begins to decline against the currencies of countries where inflation rates are lower. The negative consequences of this are primarily felt by countries with a large volume of international transactions. Therefore, it is necessary to calculate real exchange rates, those. purchasing power parity, which is the ratio of prices for similar goods and services produced in the compared countries. Weighted aggregate parities of any level are calculated, up to GDP. These calculations make it possible to estimate GDP adjusted for the standard of living. The IMF establishes parities for large areas of the planet According to the theory of PPP, the exchange rate changes in accordance with the need to compensate for the difference in the dynamics of the price level in different countries;
The country's balance of payments also has a certain influence on the exchange rate. If the balance sheet is positive, then the exchange rate of the national currency rises, as foreign debtors buy much more of it, and vice versa. Currently, the balance of payments is increasingly influenced by the movement of capital, which also affects the exchange rate;
The movement of capital largely depends on the difference in interest rates in different countries. An increase in the interest rate stimulates the import of capital into the country, and a decrease in the rate makes it necessary to look for use of free capital abroad, which increases the instability of the balance of payments. Low interest rates in other countries encourage banks to buy foreign currency from them, increasing its supply. As a result, the exchange rate of the national currency rises;
The exchange rate can be influenced by the development of currency speculation, the popularity and trust in a particular currency, the actual terms of international settlements and, of course, the monetary policy of the state.
The exchange rate can be of two types. The first one is free floating exchange rate, or, as it is also called, free floating. In this case, the state is completely outside the foreign exchange market, and the exchange rate is set only on the basis of the supply and demand of currencies, i.e. it is completely flexible. Usually, the exchange rate is considered to be floating, which can change within any limits, and these limits are not established by law. The following varieties are known:
Adjustable exchange rate - a rate that is automatically changed in accordance with a change in a certain set of economic indicators (used in Chile, Ecuador, Nicaragua);
Manageably floating exchange rate - the rate set by the central bank, and not by the foreign exchange market, but with frequent changes (developed - Norway, Greece, developing - Brazil, Egypt, etc., countries with economies in transition - China, Russia, etc.);
An independently floating exchange rate is a rate determined on the basis of the ratio of supply and demand for a currency in the foreign exchange market with no state intervention in this process (most industrial countries, except for the EU countries, many developing countries and countries with economies in transition).
Another type exists when the state is rigid fixes exchange rates . Fixed exchange rate- the officially established ratio between national currencies, allowing a temporary deviation from it in one direction or another by no more than 2.25%. The course can be fixed in one of the following ways:
Fixing the exchange rate to one currency - linking the exchange rate of the national currency to the exchange rate of the most significant currencies of international settlements (the exchange rate is fixed to the US dollar for most countries in Latin America and Africa, as well as some countries with economies in transition, such as Lithuania and Turkmenistan);
The use of the currency of other countries as legal tender (the ruble in 1992-94 in the CIS countries, the dollar in Ecuador);
Currency board - fixing the exchange rate of the national currency to a foreign one, and the issue of the national currency is fully secured by foreign currency reserves (Argentina, Hong Kong, Singapore);
Fixing the exchange rate of the common currency to one foreign currency (countries of French-speaking Africa to the French franc);
Fixing the exchange rate of the national currency to the currencies of other countries - the main trading partners (Estonia - to the German mark);
Fixing the exchange rate to the currency composite - linking the exchange rate of the national currency to the exchange rates of collective monetary units, such as SDRs.
Equilibrium exchange rate- an exchange rate that ensures the achievement of equilibrium in the balance of payments, provided there are no restrictions on international trade, special incentives for the inflow or outflow of capital and excessive unemployment. In other words, the equilibrium of the balance of payments as a result of a change in the exchange rate should be ensured as a result of the action of fundamental economic laws, and not with the help of short-term measures of the state economic policy. Thus, the equilibrium balance of payments is the key fundamental economic regularity necessary to maintain an equilibrium exchange rate.
If the equilibrium is established in the foreign exchange market at point A and the price of 1 yen is Y, then you can influence the price by increasing or decreasing the purchases of the yen. The central bank of a country can appreciate the yen by throwing a significant amount of dollars into the market and buying up a significant part of the offered yen. In this case, the supply on the market will decrease from S to S1 and the rate will increase. If the yen needs to depreciate, the central bank throws more yen into the market. The legal depreciation of a currency or central parity under a fixed exchange rate regime is called devaluation, and the increase revaluation .
Which of these systems is better, more profitable for the state? It is difficult to answer unambiguously, since the practice of using fixed and flexible exchange rates has shown both the advantages and disadvantages of both. Flexible rate often creates fluctuations in exchange rates, which leads to additional difficulties and costs in international economic relations, but, as practice has shown, in the long run it has the necessary flexibility to ensure normal relations . Fixed exchange rate good from the point of view of ensuring short-term stability, but in the long run it is inelastic and hinders the development of international relations.
In market conditions, the supply and demand for foreign currency is constantly changing under the influence of a host of factors, which together reflect the change in the country's relative place in the international economy. Accordingly, the exchange rate of the national currency also changes. Moreover, the economic meaning of changing the exchange rate under the regime of a floating and fixed exchange rate is different.
Currency depreciation– depreciation of the currency under the floating exchange rate regime. Currency appreciation- an increase in the value of the currency under a floating exchange rate regime.
In the case of a fixed exchange rate regime, its adaptation to the changed volumes of supply and demand for foreign currency occurs differently. At the same time, the question of the size of the state's foreign exchange reserves is of particular importance. They are not unlimited and therefore, if for some reason the demand for foreign currency exceeds its supply for a long time, it is impossible to artificially keep the national currency from falling by selling foreign currency from reserves. When the latter decline to less than eight weeks of imports of goods and services, the question of the utmost importance arises before the state about the need to abandon the protection of a fixed exchange rate and move to a floating exchange rate regime or legally reduce the value of its national currency to a level approximately corresponding to market equilibrium.
In this situation, currency speculators, who play on the exchange rate difference in the foreign exchange market, can get ahead of the state, which will inevitably be forced to reduce the value of its currency due to the growing loss of reserves, and begin to actively sell the national currency in exchange for a foreign one, thereby trying to avoid losses. The result is a situation known in international economics as "speculative attack on the currency". It is understood as a sharp increase in the supply of currency on the market during a period of weakening of its exchange rate, leading to the loss of the country's foreign exchange reserves in case of attempts to support the weakening exchange rate.
Important to consider dependence of prices on the dynamics of the exchange rate. In general, this dependence boils down to the following:
- depreciation of the national currency leads to a decrease in the prices of national goods in the world market, expressed in national currency, which contributes to the growth of exports, which as a result becomes more competitive. At the same time, prices for foreign goods denominated in national currency are getting higher, as a result of which their imports are reduced. As a result of the depreciation of the national currency, national assets and securities denominated in it become cheaper and more attractive to foreign investors, which leads to an increase in capital inflows from abroad.
- growth of the national currency leads to an increase in the prices of national goods in the world market, expressed in foreign currency, which leads to a reduction in their exports, which as a result becomes less competitive. At the same time, the prices of foreign goods denominated in national currency are falling, resulting in their imports increasing. As a result of the growth of the exchange rate of the national currency, national assets and securities denominated in it become more expensive relative to foreign ones, which leads to an increase in the outflow of capital abroad.
Conducted monetary policy It has a certain influence both on the internal situation of the country and on its position in the world economy. Therefore, during the implementation of reforms in Russia, from the very beginning, great attention was paid to currency relations. The liberalization of the economy led to the organization of the foreign exchange market using the mechanisms of free and managed floating.
Under these conditions, when the internal conversion of the ruble was carried out, and production showed a progressive downward trend, which was accompanied by inflation, the demand for foreign currency increased sharply, and the ruble depreciated. As a result, the profitability of exports has increased, while the profitability of imports has somewhat decreased, which led to the emergence of additional channels of capital flight abroad. The process of dollarization was clearly manifested in the national economy, when all savings of both individuals and legal entities began to be carried out mainly in foreign currency. This, like the flight of capital, has had a negative impact on investment opportunities.
The transformation of the US dollar into a practically parallel currency revealed all the shortcomings of the internal conversion of the ruble in the absence of an external one: the Central Bank of Russia had to constantly replenish foreign exchange reserves to ensure the internal conversion of the ruble and maintain its exchange rate. Funds for this could only be obtained through the export of raw materials and energy resources, which also negatively affected the state of the economy and increased the disproportionality of development.
In 1995, in order to stabilize the ruble exchange rate and reduce inflation in the country, "currency corridor". It is understood as the establishment of limits for fluctuations in the exchange rate, which the state undertakes to maintain.
31.The economic content of the trade balance
32. Balance of payments and factors affecting its condition
trade balance is the ratio of the value of exports and imports of goods over a certain period of time. It allows you to analyze the country's participation in the international division of labor, to determine its place in world trade. Another example might be estimated balance sheet at a certain date (balance sheet of international debt and claims). It allows you to obtain data on the volume of monetary claims and obligations of the country in relation to other countries. The settlement balance is closely related to the trade balance, since the basis for the emergence of claims and obligations in the international payment turnover are, in particular, commodity transactions. An analysis of the state of the settlement balance makes it possible to judge whether a country is an international debtor or an international creditor in the entire range of external settlements.
A special place in the system of balances of international settlements is occupied by payment balance. It is a statistical report on all international transactions of residents of a particular country with non-residents for a certain period of time. It reflects the ratio between the volume of goods and services received by a given country from abroad and provided by it abroad, as well as changes in its financial position in relation to abroad.
Note that the balance of payments deals with flows, not with stocks, with changes in real and financial assets and liabilities occurring over a base period, and not with the total economic assets and liabilities of a country that exist at a particular point in time.
The balance of payments is compiled for the purpose of performing both accounting and analytical tasks, which are closely related. Analysis of the balance of payments makes it possible to draw conclusions about how effectively a country is able to manage its foreign economic activity, and serves as the basis for making decisions in the field of foreign economic policy.
Methodology for compiling the balance of payments. Fundamental to the preparation of the balance of payments is double-entry method of international transactions. This method is based on the fact that each recorded transaction corresponds to a payment in one form or another, and the balance of payments and receipts must converge. The double-entry system used in compiling the balance of payments means that each transaction is represented by two entries that have the same value. One of them is registered as "credit" and has a positive sign, the other - like "debit" with a negative sign, and the sum of their values must be equal to zero.
In accordance with the principles of constructing the balance of payments of the balance it is always balanced. The concept of a negative or positive balance is applicable only to its individual parts. At the same time, it should be noted that the balance sheet itself a priori cannot have an unambiguous interpretation from the point of view of its impact on the national economy. Depending on the goals of economic policy, both negative and positive balances for individual items can be regarded both positively and negatively.
Usually, within the general balance of payments, the trade balance, the balance of current operations, the balance of capital movements and the balance of official settlements are allocated.
Trade balance is formed as the difference between exports and imports of goods only (excluding services). Comments on the change in the trade balance depend on what factors caused this change. For example, if a negative balance was formed as a result of a reduction in exports, then this may indicate a decrease in the competitiveness of the national economy and be considered as a negative phenomenon. But if such a situation was the result of an increase in imports due to the inflow of direct investment into the country, then this cannot in any way be considered as a weakening of the national economy.
Current account balance(this is the most frequently mentioned balance) is usually considered as a reference balance of payments, since it determines the country's need for financing, being at the same time a factor in external economic restrictions in domestic economic policy. A positive current account balance means that the country is a net creditor for in relation to other states, and, conversely, a current account deficit means that the country becomes a net debtor, obliged to pay for net imports of goods and services and finance transfers. In fact, a country with a current account surplus invests part of its national savings abroad instead of increasing domestic capital accumulation.
Balance of capital and finance movements in fact, it is a mirror image of the state of the current balance, as it shows the financing of the flow of real resources. True, part of this mirror image usually falls on the article "Pure errors and omissions."
Balance of official settlements is the most common definition of the overall (final) balance of payments and indicates an increase (decrease) in liquid claims to the country from non-residents or an increase (decrease) in the country's official reserves in foreign liquid assets. Recall that this balance covers all items, except for the item "Reserve assets".
In the conditions of the system of fixed exchange rates before 1971, great importance was attached to the state of the balance of official settlements, since, for example, its deficit indicated an increase in the country's obligations to other states (or a reduction in reserves), which threatened the stability of exchange rates. The introduction of floating exchange rates led to the blurring of the concept of the general balance of payments, and the dynamics of official reserves became not only a consequence of the balance of official accounts, but also the cause of changes in flows recorded in other sections of the balance of payments.
The standard components of the balance of payments are also used to determine country's international investment position , which is a statistical report on the value of the country's external assets and liabilities at the beginning and end of the reporting period, as well as all those changes that occurred during the reporting period as a result of financial transactions, cost and other changes in accumulated assets and liabilities. The main classification groups used to determine a country's net investment position are foreign assets and liabilities of residents, the difference between which gives the required value. The international investment position contains information that is important for the analysis of the economic state of the country. The country's net international investment position characterizes the state and development trends of the country's foreign economic relations with the rest of the world. Depending on whether this position is positive or negative, one can say whether a country is "net creditor" or "net debtor".
There are several main methods of state influence on the state of the balance of payments. First method- this is direct control, including the regulation of imports (for example, through quantitative restrictions), customs and other fees, a ban or restrictions on the transfer abroad of foreign investment income and cash transfers of individuals, a sharp reduction in gratuitous aid, the export of short-term and long-term capital, etc. Such direct control measures usually cause great embarrassment for many firms in the country and, accordingly, are perceived as hostile.
In the short term, direct control has a positive effect (more or less, depending on the level of compliance of firms with business laws and the ability of the government to enforce its decisions). In the long term, the effect of these measures is contradictory, as a "greenhouse regime" is created for local producers, the interest of foreign investors in the country is reduced due to the ban on the transfer of their income, difficulties arise in attracting foreign specialists, and obstacles are created for the expansion of goods abroad. and service network for domestic exporters.
It does not cause hostility, but on the contrary, such a direct measure as export subsidies is welcomed by domestic firms. But it is expensive, and therefore its use is usually associated with the state of the country's budget. Thus, the state of Russia's state budget is unlikely to allow it to actively subsidize exports in the near future.
The second method is deflation(i.e. the fight against inflation), which is aimed at solving domestic economic problems, while the side effect is an improvement in the state of the balance of payments. It is believed that the traditional consequences of deflationary policy - a decrease in production, investment and income - lead to a reduction in imports and an increase in reserve capacity to increase exports. Raising the real interest rate, common in deflation, attracts short-term capital into the country, provided, of course, that there is a developed banking system and a low level of political risk. However, there is another point of view: deflation reduces exports and increases imports. With deflation, the exchange rate of the national currency rises, which increases the opportunities for importers. For exporters, the high exchange rate of their national currency means that they receive less national currency when exchanging export earnings, and this does not stimulate them to export.
The third method - exchange rate changes. Both with a fixed and a floating exchange rate, they are under strong control and influence of the state. So, even in a floating exchange rate, the state (usually represented by the country's central bank) often seeks to keep these fluctuations within certain limits, focusing on the so-called exchange rate targets in order to avoid strong economic shocks.
Changes in the exchange rate help the state to regulate the equilibrium of the balance of payments, but it must be taken into account that the effect of revaluation / devaluation is weakened by the elasticity of exports and imports, as well as the inertia of foreign trade flows. Therefore, the short-, medium-, and long-term effects of changes in the exchange rate on the balance of payments are distinguished. Thus, the inertia of foreign trade flows often leads to the fact that in the first months after a strong depreciation of the national currency, the trade balance does not change and, oddly enough, may even worsen. After all, exporters need time to increase their exports, and importers need time to reduce the number of new contracts. In the meantime, foreign trade flows are carried out under previously concluded contracts, the value of exports and imports in dollars does not decrease, but in the domestic market the value of exported goods in rubles remains the same, while the value of imported goods increases. True, after some time the situation with the trade balance usually changes: exports increase and imports decrease.
Alexander Nikolaevich Kostenko,
professor (Kiev)
Mother Nature - Supreme Legislator
for all things for all time
INTRODUCTION
What is happening in the world today raises the question: is this evidence of progress or regression of modern civilization? The most dramatic thing is that every day it becomes more and more difficult to distinguish between good and evil, truth and untruth, beauty and ugliness, justice and injustice, heroism and crime, good people and bad people, entrepreneurship and pseudo-entrepreneurship, freedom and self-will, reality and illusions, order and anarchy, right and wrong, democracy and pseudo-democracy, morality and immorality, and so on. Same-sex marriages are equated with marriages between men and women, political fraud is cynically called an innocent "political technology", the exploitation of biological properties (instincts) of a person in literature, they replace real art with music and television, they try to “correct” reality with mysticism, and the like. And all this in modern societies is masked under the guise of progress.
Willfulness and illusions will strike more and more people, manifesting themselves in all areas of human life in the form of immorality, crime, extremism, mysticism, voluntarism, utopianism, obscurantism, and the like. It's getting harder and harder for people to understand each other. Abuse, that is, the use for the creation of evil of the means that exist for the creation of good, becomes the norm of life. Bad people live in better prosperity than good people. Upon closer examination, one can see that these are all symptoms of a crisis in the social order in which people cannot live happily...
It seems that all this and many other things like this are signs not of social progress, but of social regression. Mankind must muster the courage to admit this, because only then will it turn to the Newest Enlightenment, which will lead it to the path of social progress, as it was, in particular, in the 17th-18th centuries.
It is thanks to the Newest Enlightenment, which will propagate progressive social ideas obtained by science, that a new social order must be formed that can become the basis for a new life for people.
To form a new social order in society, a new social science is needed that would illuminate the path to
The following theses can serve to search for confirmation of this hypothesis:
Thesis 1.
Today there are enough symptoms that point to the crisis of the social order in the world.
In particular, K. Jaspers, E. Fromm, F. Hayek, Jose Ortega y Gasset, F. Fukuyama, S. Kapitsa, religious figures and others pointed out the sharpening of the problems of modern social life of people. The challenge for civilization today has become the problem of the relationship between freedom and human security, the solution of which depends on the concept of a new social order in the context of globalization. In particular, the modern concept of human rights leads to liberalism "without limits", which destroys the social order.
Thesis 2.
Social self-will and social illusions, which consist in ignoring the natural laws of people's social life, give rise to any social crisis.
The cause of any social crisis is people's defeat by social self-will and social illusions, which in particular manifests itself in the form of ignoring the natural laws of people's social life, including ignoring the laws of natural (natural) law. This is what causes social crises. Legal willfulness and legal illusions (a kind of social willfulness and social illusions), which consist in recognizing only the will and consciousness of people as the source of law, become dominant in public life when this life is not consistent with the laws of social nature, in particular, under totalitarianism or criminalism , which replaces totalitarianism on the way to democracy. Legal willfulness and legal illusions are a symptom of social regression, and naturalistic social science is a remedy for this pathology.
Thesis 3.
To overcome the crisis of the social order and enter the path of social progress, a new social theory is needed
Modern social science cannot solve the problems associated with the crisis of the social order. In particular, this concerns the problem of whether there is exploitation of man by man in the world community today? If so, is it a social norm or a social pathology? And if this is a social pathology, then how should it be treated - through a revolution, as K. Marx suggested, or is there another way? New scientific tools are needed to answer these and other questions. A new social science is called upon to help overcome the crisis in modern social life, capable of discovering the natural (natural) laws of people's social life, which are ignored by those who limit themselves to social voluntarism and social utopianism. Scientific research, including social research, is impossible without the use of a certain theory, which has as its purpose to discover patterns that are inaccessible to direct perception. A crisis of practice is always a consequence of a crisis of theory. The better theory the researcher uses, the more practical the result of his research will be. Knowledge without theory is "blind". A researcher who does not have a theory for his scientific research is a "headless horseman". Only with the help of a new theory can the crisis of modern social science be overcome.
Thesis 4.
A new social doctrine can be productive if it is based on the principle of the naturalness of the social (the principle of social naturalism), which is the result of the development of the ideas of the Enlightenment
The way out of the crisis of people's social life should be carried out by basing this life on a doctrine that would eliminate social willfulness and social illusions. Such a doctrine can be developed on the basis of the theory of social naturalism, which is the result of the development, in particular, of the ideas of the Stoics, the ideologists of the Enlightenment, Emile Durkheim, F. Hayek and other thinkers. To overcome the crisis of jurisprudence, which is a “concentrated expression” of the social sciences, it is also relevant to turn to the ideas of naturalist lawyers of the past: Cicero, Hugo Grotius, Puffendorf, Locke, Radbruch and others. The theory of social naturalism is based on the principle of the naturalness of the social, which consists in interpreting social phenomena as those that must exist according to natural laws (laws of social nature) acting through the will and consciousness of people.
Thesis 5.
To create a productive doctrine of social science, it is necessary, based on the idea of the natural integrity of the world, to solve the problem No. 1 of modern civilization, which is formulated as follows: “Is the social natural?”
Problem No. 1 of modern civilization, on the solution of which the solution of all other problems depends, can be formulated as follows: “Is the social natural? Or, in other words, what is the social role of the human will and consciousness in the world that exists according to the laws of Mother Nature? Based on the idea of the natural integrity of the world, as well as the idea of V.I. Vernadsky about the “planetary significance of the mind”, the following solution to this problem is proposed: “Social phenomena are no less natural than physical and biological ones, and the social role of human will and consciousness is in adapting human life to the laws of Mother Nature! This is the basis for the theory of social naturalism. Social naturalism does not lead to reductionism, that is, it does not mean the physicalization or biologization of social phenomena, because social nature is not reduced to physical or biological nature. Social nature is recognized as the third (along with the other two - physical and biological), independent form of nature, genetically related to physical and biological nature, but such that it exists according to its own laws of nature, peculiar only to it. The theory of social naturalism consists in recognizing the social as natural in accordance with the idea of the natural integrity of the world, which means that nothing in the world can exist outside the laws of Mother Nature, including social phenomena that are generated by the will and consciousness of people. Any other idea should be qualified as voluntarism and utopianism, that is, such that it recognizes the will and consciousness of people who can be in a state of self-will and illusions as the source of laws for social phenomena. Any social evil is a manifestation of a complex of willfulness and illusions that strikes people as a result of their will and consciousness being inconsistent with the natural laws inherent in the social life of people. According to the theory of social naturalism, the dichotomy "nature and society" is erroneous, because society is also nature. The following position follows from this theory: "Mother Nature is the Supreme Legislator for all things for all time." Only Mother Nature can provide criteria for distinguishing between good and evil, justice and injustice, right and wrong, truth and untruth, beauty and ugliness, enterprise and pseudo-entrepreneurship, and so on. The new sociology, which can be called "naturalistic" sociology, must also be consistent with this position. The transformation of modern social sciences into natural (natural) sciences is possible if the social sciences are based on the principle of the naturalness of the social, that is, on the principle of social naturalism. (This approach is detailed in particular in the book: Kostenko A.N. Culture and law - in counteracting evil. - Kiev: Atika, 2008. - 352 p. (in Ukrainian); Kostenko A.N. Problem No. 1 of modern civilization (in Ukrainian cotext) - Cherkassy - 2008. - 112 pp. (in Ukrainian)).
Thesis 6.
Social science will be able to ensure social progress if it becomes a natural (natural) science - a branch of natural science, that is, it will be aimed at understanding the laws of nature, according to which there is a social life of people (the laws of social nature)
The need to use the achievements of the social sciences in ensuring social progress is indicated, in particular, in the Declaration of Social Progress and Development proclaimed by the UN General Assembly on December 11, 1969. However, modern social science is not yet properly used for social progress. If we explain the position of the noted Delaration in the light of naturalistic theory, then social progress should be understood as political, economic, legal, moral progress as progress in adapting people's lives to the laws of social nature. Therefore, social progress is not possible without the development of social sciences, which would be able to discover new laws of social nature for politics, economics, law, morality and other areas of people's social life. It follows from the theory of social naturalism that all sciences must be recognized as natural - there can be no non-natural sciences. This also applies to the sciences of social phenomena - the social sciences, as well as jurisprudence, which is the "concentrated expression" of the social (and human) sciences. Therefore, jurisprudence must become a "naturalistic" jurisprudence, like social science in general. They must learn the natural laws of people's lives, according to which social and legal phenomena exist. "Naturalistic" jurisprudence is designed to promote the formation of the coherence of the will and consciousness of people with the laws of natural (natural) law, thus contributing to the formation of what is called the legal culture of man. The legal culture of people, which is understood in this way, is higher than any constitutions, codes and laws - it determines their action as instruments in ensuring the rule of law in society. Hence the formula: "Culture is the mother of order!". In accordance with this formula, the social culture of citizens is the basis of the social order and the welfare state. And if this is so, then the fate of peoples is determined not by parties, governments and parliaments, but by universities that form the social, that is, legal, as well as economic, political, and moral culture of citizens. It follows from the principle of social naturalism that the life of people is determined by the degree of consistency of their will and consciousness with the natural laws by which human society exists. This consistency we call the social culture of people, including in it, in particular, the political, economic, legal, moral culture of people. There is the following pattern: "what kind of culture of people - such is their life." This provision can be the basis for a branch of science called social culturology, which studies the laws governing the existence of people's social culture. The crisis of the social culture of citizens leads to a crisis in public life, which manifests itself, in particular, in the fact that the rule of law turns into a pseudo-legal state, human rights into pseudo-human rights, democracy into pseudo-democracy, equality of people into pseudo-equality (into social equalization) , entrepreneurship - into pseudo-entrepreneurship (that is, the exploitation of man by man), religion - into pseudo-religion, morality - into pseudo-morality, art - into pseudo-art, social (social) progress - into pseudo-progress and the like. Now there is a crisis in the world in the field of law, which lies in the fact that the hypertrophy of the role of legislation in public life due to the atrophy of the legal culture of citizens gives rise to the prosperity of hypocrisy, Jesuitism, and corruption. It is “naturalistic” jurisprudence that is able to suggest how to eliminate this, namely: with the help of the formula “legal culture of citizens plus legislation”, that is, by eliminating the hypertrophy of legislation and the atrophy of the legal culture of citizens. Based on "naturalistic" jurisprudence, the doctrine of human rights makes it possible to get rid of the so-called "liberalism without limits", replacing it with the concept of liberalism limited by "natural duties". "Naturalistic" jurisprudence reveals "the stone that the builders neglected," namely, the "natural duties" of man, which must correspond to the "natural rights" of man. According to the laws of social nature, people are endowed not only with “natural rights”, but also with “natural duties” corresponding to them, which should determine the limits of the freedom of human behavior in the concept of liberalism. Consequently, the naturalistic conception of liberalism must be established on the formula: "the natural rights of man plus the natural duties of man." Obviously, only such a "naturalistic" conception of liberalism can contribute to social progress. It makes it possible to dissociate itself from the so-called "wild" liberalism, which, being a violation of the unity of "natural rights" and "natural duties", is a manifestation of the unlimited freedom of people that gives rise to social crises. "Wild" liberalism transforms, in particular, democracy into pseudo-democracy, the signs of which we have in many countries.
Thesis 7.
Being based on the principle of social naturalism, "naturalistic" social science opens the way to a new social worldview, which is based on a new solution to the "basic question of sociology"
“Naturalistic” social science, which is established on the principle of social naturalism, provides grounds for a new solution to the “basic question of sociology”, which is formulated as follows: “Society is a creation of Mother Nature or the will and consciousness of People, or both?” . This new decision has the form of a representation, according to which: a) “Society is a product of the implementation by people of the laws of those natural laws that Mother Nature gives for the public life of people; b) “Any violation of the social order (in particular, the rule of law, as a “concentrated expression” of the social order is a manifestation of a complex of arbitrariness and human illusions in the form of a violation of the laws of social nature (including the laws of “natural law” embodied in the current legislation”); c) “Social order is a state that is formed as a result of the application by people, in accordance with their social (including legal) culture, of the laws of social nature (including the application of the current legislation in which the laws of “natural law” are embodied); d) “Legislation is only a tool in the hands of people, which is applied in accordance with their social culture, and not a self-acting factor in ensuring social order (and the rule of law). The social representation is noted as completely suitable for use both in theory and in practice in all branches of public life of people: in economics, politics, right, morality, and the like. Only with the help of the "naturalistic" theory of social phenomena can adequate answers be given, for example, to such questions: the exploitation of man by man - is it natural or unnatural; what is the difference between democracy and pseudo-democracy; same-sex marriage is a social norm or a social pathology; how to distinguish the equality of men and women from equalization; whether the division of people into an elite and a mass is unnatural, and others. In particular, in accordance with "naturalistic" sociology, the progress of society can only occur when society is naturally divided into an elite and a mass - this is a natural law of people's social life. It should establish a social order that ensures the progress of society, and not on the willful social equalization of people, which leads to the regression of society. As for the exploitation of man by man, according to “naturalistic” sociology, it takes place today in the world, but counteraction to it should not take place in an unnatural way, that is, not willfully, as K. Marx - through revolution, but in a natural way, that is, by promoting the development of fair competition, which tends to oust exploitation.
Thesis 8.
The theory of "naturalistic" social science differs from other social theories in that it is an application of the principle of social naturalism to the interpretation of social phenomena.
"Naturalistic" sociology differs from other social theories (theological, positivist, historical, anthropological, psychological, realistic, postmodern, etc.) in that it is established on the principle of social naturalism, according to which society, with all its attributes (including politics, religion, economics, law, morality, art, etc.) should be recognized as a "third nature", along with the other two: physical nature ("first nature") and biological nature ("second nature"). Therefore, jurisprudence (like all social and human sciences) will become a real science when it receives the status of a natural science (natural science), like physics and biology. The artificial division between the so-called natural sciences and the social (humanitarian) sciences must be eliminated. Only in this case will the social (and human) sciences become truly sciences, discovering the laws of social nature in the same way that the laws of physical and biological nature are being discovered today. Then in the social sciences, including jurisprudence, it will be possible to discover the laws of social nature (in particular, the laws of natural (natural) law), as in physics and biology of physical and biological laws. (By the way, the concept of "law" that is now used in natural science was first created in jurisprudence and transferred to natural science by the ancient Greek philosopher Anaximander.)
Thesis 9.
The role of "naturalistic" social science lies in the fact that it contributes to overcoming social self-will and social illusions, which are the source of the crisis of the social order and lead to social regression, offering the formula "Culture is the mother of order!", which creates immunity against abuse of the achievements of physical and biological Sciences
In accordance with the theory of social naturalism, no President, Government, Parliament or political parties and other institutions of “civil society” can lead society to the path of progress without the decisive role of citizens armed with a social (economic, political, legal) developed on the basis of the ideology of social naturalism. , moral) culture. The significance of the theory of social naturalism lies in the fact that it contributes to the development of people's social culture, which is able to form immunity against social willfulness and social illusions in society, including legal willfulness and legal illusions. These self-will and illusions are the source of the crisis of the social order, and in particular the crisis of the rule of law. The social culture of citizens lies in the unity of "natural (natural) rights" and "natural (natural) duties", which eliminates the so-called "wild" liberalism as a form of abuse of freedom, and hence rights. This is where the "naturalistic" social science is established, which has as its purpose the opposition to social self-will and social illusions, which are the source of the crisis of the social (that is, economic, political, legal, moral) order. In accordance with the "naturalistic" social science, a new doctrine is proposed for ensuring the social (economic, political, legal, moral) order, which consists in the formula: "social culture of citizens plus legislation." As the experience of mankind shows, there is the following regularity: the progress of social life favorable for the happiness of people is determined by the progress of the social sciences, which provide a social order suitable for benefiting from the achievements of the physical and biological sciences and for counteracting the abuse of the achievements of these sciences. Therefore, one should be guided by the doctrine of the priority of the social (including the humanities) sciences over the physical and biological sciences. The notion that the progress of mankind is ensured not by the development of the social (including the humanities) sciences, but solely by the achievements of the physical and biological sciences must be dispelled as erroneous and harmful.
Thesis 10.
« Naturalistic social science makes it possible to adequately respond to the new challenges of the time, in particular, it contributes to solving problems that arise in connection with the process of globalization of people's social life.
As the experience of the Age of Enlightenment shows, the new challenges that appeared before humanity were adequately answered with the help of new social ideas formulated by the social (and human) sciences. Based on this, one should recognize the existence of a social pattern, which can be expressed as follows: "The fate of peoples is determined by universities, and not by parties, governments or parliaments." Consequently, peace, security, and the well-being of peoples depend on the progress of the social sciences. This progress lies precisely in the "naturalization" of the social sciences, that is, in the extent to which the natural (natural) laws of people's social life are reflected in the social sciences. "Naturalistic" social science encourages, in particular, to consider the globalization of people's social life as the approximation of all national societies to one "common denominator" - to the natural (natural) laws of people's social life, which are common to all peoples. Proceeding from this, the problems that have arisen in connection with the global economic crisis that humanity has today should be resolved, that is, through the reform of economic science (and, thanks to this, the economic culture of people) based on the principle of the naturalness of the social.
CONCLUSIONS:
If we assume that the hypothesis presented here is correct, then this gives grounds for the following conclusion: social science, being doctrinally reformed into the branch of natural science (natural science) with the help of the “principle of the naturalness of the social” (the principle of social naturalism), can contribute to the formation of a new social culture of citizens , which is the basis of a new social (that is, political, economic, legal, moral) order in modern society and the engine of social progress. There is obviously the following regularity - how humanity will take advantage of the achievements of the physical and biological sciences depends on the development of social sciences, which form the social culture of people: what kind of culture people have - such is their life. And this means that in order to adequately respond to the challenges that modern humanity faces (in particular, the challenges associated with the achievements of the physical and biological sciences), one should adhere to the doctrine of the priority of the social sciences (including the humanities) over the physical and biological sciences. The development of mankind gives rise to the need for sciences that would adequately explain the new social phenomena that arise as a result of this development. Therefore, in particular, based on "naturalistic" sociology, the global economic crisis that has now arisen can be explained as a manifestation of the crisis of people's social culture, generated by the crisis of the social (and human) sciences. Today, these sciences no longer adequately reflect the new social realities, in particular the laws of a new social nature that have developed in the 21st century. This is also evidence that there is a need to reform the social sciences based on the “principle of the naturalness of the social” and the establishment of the Newest Enlightenment, which will form a new social (political, economic, legal, moral) culture of people - the basis of social progress in the modern world.
Topic 20. Reproduction of the population and the labor market
20.1. demographic processes. The inconsistency of the problem.
20.2. Quantitative and qualitative characteristics of labor resources. Employment and its types.
20.3. Socio-economic factors. Reproduction of labor resources.
Demography is the science of population. For the first time this term was used by the French scientist A. Guillard in 1855 in his book "The Element of Population Statistics, or Comparative Demography". Demography is a social science that, on the basis of social, economic, biological and geographical factors, causes and conditions, explores the patterns of processes occurring in the structure of distributions, movements and population dynamics. The study of demographic processes in a particular country cannot be considered in isolation from the demographic situation throughout the world, as well as taking into account the factor of the historicity of this process.
Let's trace the population in historically significant periods for our state:
world population - 275 million people.
of which in Europe - 42 million people.
Kievan Rus - 8 million people.
1200– 348 million people
of which in Europe - 100 million people.
in Asia, Australia and Oceania - 203 million people.
1800– 906 million people
of which in Europe - 187 million people.
1900– 1608 million people
of which in Europe - 401 million people.
in Africa - 120 million people.
in America - 140 million people.
Currently, there are more than 6 billion people in the world, 600 million people in Africa, and with the dominant role of the traditional economy, the needs of people have already exceeded the permissible load on local biological systems.
According to forecasts, the world population by 2025 will be 8 billion people.
Demographic problems in our country began to be studied only from the 60s of the twentieth century, because. Previously, it was believed that, having done away with unemployment by the beginning of the 30s, having organized a personnel training system, our country could not have demographic problems.
Demographic problems in our country were complex and diverse, and in general they could be reduced to two main components:
1) two opposite types of population reproduction;
2) the demographic consequences of the war.
In the former USSR, 2 types of population reproduction have developed (H:1.1) based on low, population-controlled birth rates, low mortality, and high intensity of migration. This type of reproduction is typical for Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia and Georgia, i.e. for about 80% of the population of the former Soviet Union. This type is characterized by a system that does not provide a simple reproduction of the population. According to demographers, from the initial population of 1000 people. after 30 years, 621 people remain, after 98 years - 386 people, after 50 years - 92 people, after 300 years - 8 people, or less than 1% of the original population.
The type of reproduction based on a high birth rate, low mortality and low intensity of migration outside their republics gives a high percentage (from 2.5 to 3%) annually and is typical for the indigenous rural population of the Central Asian republics. The result is overcrowding, the absence of stable sources of income for the surplus labor resources, the growth of socio-economic instability and adverse economic consequences. If earlier, before the collapse of the USSR, it was possible to count on the migration of young people from Asia to Russia, now, in the conditions of the formation of the CIS, such an option is practically excluded.
The demographic consequences of the war are divided into direct and indirect. Direct - more than 20 million people. dead, and indirect ones are the unborn generation as a result of the war, the decline in the “quality” of the population: the level of education, health status, etc.
The labor resources of the state represent the labor potential, i.e. are an integral characteristic of quantity, quality and a measure of the total ability to work.
The modern labor market includes three main categories of people:
1) "blue collars" (workers engaged mainly in physical labor);
2) "gray collar" (ordinary workers - support staff);
3) "white-collar workers" (knowledge workers: employees, engineers, administrative and managerial personnel, etc.).
The development of scientific and technological progress and the transition to the information society caused a number of qualitative and quantitative changes in the structure of the labor market:
There is a sharp decrease in the proportion of manual workers;
The proportion of knowledge workers has increased significantly.
A characteristic feature of the qualitative evolution of the modern labor force is the growth of its educational level.
In terms of education and qualifications of the workforce, Russia is one of the leading places in the world. So at the beginning of 1998, more than 19% of all employed people in the country had higher education, and about 69% had secondary education (general and special); universities graduated about 46 thousand specialists, and in 1998 in Russia there were more than 3 million university students (207 students per 10 thousand population. The level of education of the labor force in the whole population is one of the important comparative competitive advantages.
The accelerating processes of updating scientific and technical knowledge have increased the need for specialists who can creatively use scientific and innovative approaches to improve technologies based on the achievements of computer science.
Modern conditions and the development of the information society require employees to have perfect knowledge of computer science, computer technology, a high level of oral and written speech is required. Ability to read books and literature reviews, scientific and technical journals, financial reports and legal documents.
The high level of dynamics of innovation processes in the economy necessitated the creation of a system of continuous education of personnel at enterprises, organizations, and institutions. Regular updating and replenishment of the professional qualities of employees in universities, faculties and advanced training courses.
Employment is the most important characteristic of the economy and the welfare of the nation. This indicator is an assessment of the well-being of the country, its economic and social stability. Employment is an integral part of socio-economic policy.
The Law "On Employment of the Population of the Russian Federation" defines the socio-economic structure of employment, where its main types are identified. These include:
employed;
Engaged in entrepreneurial activities;
Temporarily absent due to disability, vacation, advanced training, etc.;
self-employed;
Elected, appointed or approved to a paid position;
Serving in the ranks of the Russian army and other armed structures of the state;
Students in educational institutions.
From the variety of activities, 3 groups of employees can be distinguished:
1) employed in the economy in a paid activity;
2) employees of the Russian Army;
3) students with a break from work.
Employed in the economy according to the nature of participation in economic processes can be divided into three subgroups:
1) employees;
2) employers;
3) self-employed.
The labor market, built on the laws of supply and demand and functioning according to certain principles and mechanisms, is a special kind of market and has a number of significant differences from other commodity markets. The functioning of the labor market is significantly influenced by economic factors, which can be considered:
The population of working age, i.е. the number of people who can be involved in the production process;
The age structure of the population, showing what kind of labor resources the country has;
The level of employment and the professional structure of the employed, which determines the efficiency of the use of labor potential and ways to increase production volumes;
The flow of labor resources from one production area to another and the processes of population migration;
The qualification level of the labor force and the level of production culture as factors determining the quality of the labor force.
The Russian economy has significant labor resources. The total number in 1997 was 147,137 thousand people, of which 84,337 thousand people were of working age, i.e. 57.3% of the population. Along with this, in recent years there have been a number of negative trends associated with the reproduction of the labor force. These include the aging of the population, an increase in the population over working age, and a decrease in the population under working age due to a sharp reduction in the birth rate. There is a natural population decline associated with a decrease in the birth rate and a decrease in life expectancy, which may be reflected in a decrease in the working-age population in 2005-2010.
Improving the efficiency of the reproduction of labor resources is possible through the use of various market regulatory instruments: increasing the mobility of the labor force, stimulating the free flow of employees between areas of production activity, and introducing a differentiated system of social assistance to the unemployed.
Lecture plan: 1. The concept of bionomics and its sections. 2. Biology of the economy (biology of the social organism). 3. Transfer of information as an object of bioeconomics. 4. Scientific and economic prerequisites for the emergence of bionomics. 5. The place of bionomics in modern science and economics. 6. Economic biology as a section of bionomics. 7. Applied areas of research in economic biology.
Bionomics is: a branch of biology that studies the relationship between living organisms and their external environment; a branch of ergonomics that includes behavioral sciences, biomechanics, posture, stretching; “an evolutionary trend in economics that considers the economy as a self-organizing and self-developing system that has all the qualities of a living thing” (RGIM dictionary); a new direction in economic theory, according to which biological models and methods are applied to the economy.
While traditional economics is based on concepts borrowed from classical Newtonian physics, bionomics has emerged from modern evolutionary biology. Where the traditional view sees organizations as machines for the production of products, bionomics sees organizations as intelligent social organisms.
This approach allows us to see the economy as a living self-regulating system, which in turn leads to the ability to determine its viability, study economic diseases and ways to treat them. Thus, new methods of studying economic systems and assessing their quality are being introduced.
The founder of bionomics as a direction in economics is Michael Rothschild. In his book Bionomics: Economics as an Ecosystem (1990), he defined the essence of bionomics: making broad analogies between biological evolution and economics, and applying the idea of natural selection to economic processes. At the same time, the properties highlighted by evolution are inherited and accumulated.
Following the example of biology, bionomics gives priority to the processes of information transfer. “Genetic information… is the foundation of all organic life. Technical information... is the source of all economic life. ... genetic variability and natural selection - two phenomena analogous to technical innovation and market competition - generate a pulsating rhythm of evolutionary change ”(M. Rothschild)
Various factors, including the informatization of the economy, the sharply increased cost of knowledge, the ease of moving capital across state borders, changing views on the nature of a stable and unstable relationship of order and chaos, and many others created the preconditions for the emergence of bionomics.
To date, a lot of scientific papers have been written on bionomics. For example, one of the schools of this discipline is represented by Igor Flor (“Bionomics: Analysis based on bioeconomic analogies” (2005), “Biological approach to managing economic systems” (2006)).
In the photo: The founders of modern bionomics, Michael Rothschild (USA) (left) and Igor Flor (Russia) (right), Moscow, 2007. In the photo: The founders of modern bionomics, Michael Rothschild (USA) (left) and Igor Flor (Russia) (right), Moscow, 2007.
Opportunities for the explosive development of this area of the economy have recently appeared, firstly, thanks to the unprecedented development of the biological sciences themselves; secondly, thanks to the development of information technologies, nanotechnologies and the so-called "green" chemistry. Together, bioinformatics and nanotechnologies are now forming the basis of a new civilization, the so-called sixth technological order.
The use of biotechnology gives humanity the opportunity to solve four main problems: food security; health care quality; environmental degradation; problems associated with depletion, depletion of energy, raw materials and other resources.
Bionomics is still in its infancy. Despite the huge difference that exists between traditional economics and bionomics, it is not right and even dangerous to oppose them, just as it is impossible to oppose biology to physics: these disciplines should not contradict, but mutually complement and enrich each other.
Biologists have proven that human anthropometry, including height, is determined by more than 80% by genetic factors and only slightly depends on the quality of life, or the biological status of the individual. But since the genetic factor is practically unchanged, the variability of growth - individual or average in social groups, classes and entire populations - is determined solely by the quality of life.
The average height of a modern 20-year-old resident of St. Petersburg is 178 cm, residents cm. If you create living conditions in St. Petersburg, as in Sweden or Norway, then the height of men will gradually increase to cm, and women - up to cm.
The potential inherent in human genes is fully realized only under favorable conditions, and, conversely, with prolonged and severe deprivation, growth stunting occurs, which can be compensated by a faster increase in body length during favorable periods. From this it follows: tall people in general ate better, had better care, were less sick, etc., that is, in general they had a higher biological status than people of short stature.
Biological status is not synonymous with wealth or standard of living. But it is largely determined by income, which allows us to draw conclusions about the well-being of the people, the national income of the country by changing the average body length of its citizens. In underdeveloped countries, where the maintenance of biological status absorbs a large share of the income of the population, the relationship between wealth and biological status is closer. On the contrary, in developed countries, where a smaller share of the population's income is spent on maintaining biological status, the relationship is weaker.
First, in relation to the overwhelming majority of countries until the middle of the 19th century. it is impossible to operate with traditional indicators of well-being due to the lack of reliable data. The situation with statistical sources is slightly better in subsequent periods; Secondly, anthropometric data allow us to look at the situation of people in a new perspective: to assess their biological status, the balance between energy consumption and expenditure; Thirdly, anthropometric data are universal and elementary, they are easier to compare, even if they refer to different years, to different social groups or countries, they do not need to be adjusted for inflation and consumption patterns.
Demography studies the size, territorial distribution and composition of the population, the patterns of their changes based on social, economic, biological and geographical factors, causes and conditions.
home a task demography as a science - the identification and knowledge of demographic laws, patterns, relationships. Among practical tasks There are three main demographics:
1) based on the collection and demographic analysis of information, the study of trends and factors of demographic processes;
2) development of demographic forecasts;
3) development of measures for demographic statistics.
Various research methods are used in demography, among them a descriptive method, statistical and mathematical methods of analysis, an abstract analytical method, a comparative method, analysis and synthesis, generalization, induction and deduction methods, a method of putting forward hypotheses and testing them, extrapolation and modeling, sociological methods studies of demographic behavior, cartographic methods, etc. At the same time, statistical and mathematical methods of analysis occupy the main place in demography.
Among the actual demographic methods most commonly used in demographic scientific and practical work are the cohort method, longitudinal and transverse demographic analysis, the potential demographic method, methods for standardizing demographic coefficients, etc.
Demographic models are widely used in scientific and practical work; demographic forecasting (especially often carried out by the method of shifting by age) is usually an integral part of most works with demographic plots.
Modern demography is a complex science of population (population), or more precisely, it is a whole system of interacting sciences that jointly study the reproduction of the population and individual demographic processes. The internal differentiation of demographics is gradually becoming more complex. Three main criteria are distinguished, on the basis of which internal differentiation in demography is substantiated; at the same time, the selection of subdisciplines and sections within demography is based on the joint application of all these criteria. Among them:
1) theoretical level of scientific interpretation of observed phenomena;
2) objective-subjective criterion;
3) connection with practice, the degree of focus on solving practical, applied problems.
In demography, as in other sciences, there is a process specializations. Among the branches of demography, for example, demographic statistics, descriptive demography, formal demography, theoretical demography, historical demography, economic demography, social demography and a number of other sections are distinguished.
There are several areas of work in demography: demographic theory, collection of primary data on the population and demographic processes, description of demographic processes, pure - or formal - demography (considers the quantitative correlations of demographic phenomena, processes, structures, changes in the size and composition of the population under their influence), demographic analysis, historical demography, etc. As a result, seven main components in the system of demographic sciences can be distinguished:
1) theoretical demography, history of demography, descriptive demography, economic demography, modeling of socio-demographic processes, i.e. a kind of theoretical foundation of science;
2) sectoral demographic sciences: medical demography, ethnic demography, military demography, political demography, etc.;
3) sources of information and methods: sources of data on the population, methods - statistical, mathematical, sociological, cartographic, etc.;
4) regional demography;
5) applied demographic research;
6) socio-demographic forecasting;
7) theoretical foundations of demographic policy.
Demography has close relationships with other sciences. Demographics interact especially closely:
1) with socio-economic and historical sciences that study population economics, sociology, social psychology, social and migration policy, population geography, ethnography, etc.;
2) mathematics and statistics (formal demography and statistical demography);
3) biological sciences: population genetics, evolutionary biology, epidemiology, biological prediction of population development, etc. Demography uses methods and draws on the facts established by these sciences. In turn, other sciences use demographic data to better understand their subject of study.
The closest is the connection of demography with history, since it is the consideration of reproduction as a historical process that makes it possible to reveal its social conditioning, dependence on specific socio-economic processes of a particular period of development of society. With the help of ethnography, demography reveals the impact on the processes of reproduction of the population of the characteristics of the culture and life of different peoples. Of the economic sciences, those most closely related to demography are those that study employment and relations in the sphere of distribution. Of the sociological sciences, the closest to demography is the sociology of the family. Social psychology helps demography understand the patterns of demographic behavior. Since such behavior is also regulated by legal norms, there are areas in demography related to jurisprudence. Demographic processes usually have significant regional differentiation, and also depend on the types of settlements and settlements. Therefore, demography draws on information and methods of population geography.
Statistical and mathematical methods are extremely important in demography. It is with their help that most of the data on the population is collected, and then these data are checked and corrected (errors are identified, standardization is carried out, etc.). It is no coincidence that demographics first appeared as part of statistics. The main part of the data is provided by demography, population statistics and medical statistics.
Many demographic processes are based on a biological component. This explains the use in demography of the methods and results of research in genetics, human physiology, psychology, gerontology, anthropology, and other biological sciences. The state of people's health, the impact of working and living conditions on morbidity and mortality is studied by the science of social hygiene, which is also associated, therefore, with demography.