Accounting for beginners. Types of accounting and their characteristics Their movement through continuous continuous
three interconnected type of accounting:
* operational;
* statistical;
* accounting.
Operational accounting -
Statistical Accounting - .
Accounting - .
2.
Accounting - an orderly system for collecting, registering and summarizing information in monetary terms about property, liabilities and their movement by means of a continuous, continuous and documentary reflection of all business transactions.
Accounting Features:
* documented substantiation of facts;
* their continuous and continuous reflection;
The use of special methods of data processing (accounts, double entry, balance, etc.).
Key management features
* monitoring their implementation;
* assessment of decisions made.
* business processes.
The property of the organization. Classification of property by functional role in the reproduction process
Property - immovable and movable things (including money and securities) accepted by the organization for accounting, other property, including the property rights of the organization in relation to other persons, as well as exclusive rights to the results of intellectual activity.
The composition and functional role (nature of use) of the organization’s property is divided into:
* fixed assets;
* current assets;
* abstract assets.
Non-current assets include:
* fixed assets;
* profitable investments in material values;
* intangible assets;
* Equipment for installation;
* investments in non-current assets. Current assets include:
* stocks a) production stocks;
b) animals for growing and fattening;
c) finished products;
d) goods;
* costs work in progress;
* cash a) at the checkout;
b) in bank accounts;
c) financial investments (stocks, bonds,
loans, etc.);
Funds in current accounts with debtors:
settlements (receivables with customers and customers;
debt) with founders on deposits
to the authorized capital;
With other debtors (accountable
faces, etc.).
Abstracted assets - losses of the organization.
Sources of property formation. Classification of sources
Sources of formation of property of the organization are divided into:
* own sources;
* borrowed (attracted) sources.
Own sources include:
* authorized capital;
* reserve fund;
* additional fund;
* special-purpose financing;
* undestributed profits.
Borrowed (attracted) sources consist of:
* long-term borrowed sources (long-term liabilities: bank loans with a maturity of more than 1 year and loans with a maturity of more than 1 year);
* short-term borrowed sources (short-term liabilities: loans and borrowings with a maturity of up to 1 year, settlements with creditors (with suppliers and other creditors), deferred income, reserves for future expenses).
Business operations - components of business processes,
Their characteristic
A business operation is the movement of property (funds) of an organization, accompanied by a change in its forms. It is characterized by signs and indicators.
Characteristics characterizes qualitatively (price, rate, price, etc.).
The indicators reflect the quantitative characteristic of the business transaction (in-kind, labor and money meter).
The fact of economic activity covers all objects and phenomena of primary accounting supervision without exception.
A business operation is a private, most common, case of the fact of economic activity.
Business practice identified 3 sets of business operations:
* business operations on the procurement of inventories;
* business operations for the production of products;
* business operations for the sale of products.
Each aggregate forms a separate business process.
Passive Account Scheme
(title)
Debit Credit
Examples of passive accounts: “Statutory Fund”;
"Reserve Fund";
"Retained earnings";
“Settlements with suppliers and contractors”, etc.
The final balance (C to) in the passive account is determined by the formula:
C k \u003d C „+ O k -O d
11. General characteristics and structure of active-passive accounting accounts
Active-passive accounts are mixed, but ultimately the records of business transactions in them correspond to the general rule for dividing accounts into active and passive.
Depending on the nature of the business transactions in these accounts, balances can be either debit or credit, or both debit and credit.
The balances on such accounts may be reflected in the asset or in the liability of the balance sheet.
To determine the balance in active-passive accounts, the data of analytical accounting are used. The balance is displayed for each debtor and creditor, and then the total balance of the debit and credit of the account is determined.
Active Passive Account Scheme
Score___________________________________
(title)
Examples of active-passive accounts: “Settlements with different debtors
and lenders ”;
“Settlements with founders”, etc.
Document Classification
To facilitate the study and use in accounting practice, a wide variety of primary documents is classified according to the following criteria:
- appointment | · Administrative; · Acquittal (executive); · Accounting clearance; Combined |
- sequence (time) compilation | Primary · Summary (expense report); Derivatives; · Intermediate; |
- the method of use or the extent of coverage of business transactions | · One-time (cash orders); · Accumulative (limit-intake cards); |
- the number of positions (rows) | · Single line; · Multi-line; |
- place of compilation | · Internal; · External; |
- form | · Standard (unified); · Specialized; |
- filling method | · Manually; · On typewriters; · On a personal computer; |
- reproduction of information | · Originals (finance); · copies; · Extracts from documents; |
- shelf life | · Current shelf life (from 1 to 5 years); · Permanent storage. |
20. Organization of workflow. Document processing
Business Documentation It consists in the perception of data on the operation (counting, measurement) and entering the received data into the document (filling in its details).
Creating a set of primary documents is a primary accounting. Primary accounting - This is a set of techniques for the perception of source information and its registration in documents.
Primary accounting can be carried out manually and automatically.
The state (i.e., reliability and timeliness) of primary accounting depends on the security of the organization with a variety of technical means for calculating and measuring quantitative quantities.
Hence, primary accounting - This is an organized system for monitoring, measuring, recording data on economic organizations and other facts of economic activity, used to make managerial decisions.
It is necessary not only to draw up documents correctly, but also to submit them in a timely manner for processing, i.e. the workflow schedule should be maintained.
Workflow - this is the movement of a document from the moment of its compilation through all stages of accounting processing to transfer to storage.
The organization should have developed a workflow schedule that indicates the deadlines for submitting documents to the accounting department for processing (by type), indicating the responsible persons. The workflow schedule provides for a uniform load of not only the accounting staff, but also all other employees associated with the primary accounting.
The workflow schedule is developed by the chief accountant. He exercises control over its implementation.
Each organization should be developed document management systemincluding:
* development of regulations on the accounting service;
* drawing up job descriptions for the accounting staff;
* drawing up a workflow schedule;
* Creation of technology for processing accounting information;
* development of the nomenclature of cases for current and permanent storage.
Paperwork in accounting
The processing of documents verified and accepted by the accounting department includes the following steps:
After affixing accounts correspondence, documents are used to record operations on sets in accounting registers.
Ensuring the safety of documents and reporting forms assigned to the head of the organization.
After the preparation of financial statements, primary documents are transferred to storage. The storage time of documents is determined by a special list in which specific types of documents contain storage periods.
Permanent documents are transferred to departmental and state archives.
The seizure of documents from the organization can be made only on the basis of decisions of inquiry bodies and courts. The seizure is drawn up by an act, a copy of which is handed over against receipt to the official of the organization. With the permission and in the presence of representatives of the bodies conducting the seizure, the chief accountant (another official) may make copies of the seized documents indicating the grounds and date of their seizure.
Types of accounting and their characteristics
The accounting system includes three interconnected type of accounting:
* operational;
* statistical;
* accounting.
Operational accounting - a system of current monitoring and control of individual facts in order to manage them when they are committed. The main meters are natural and labor.
Statistical Accounting - a system for registering, summarizing and studying mass, qualitatively homogeneous socio-economic phenomena at the scale of enterprises, industry, region, country. Meters - in-kind, labor, cash.
Accounting - an orderly system for collecting, registering and summarizing information in monetary terms about property, liabilities and their movement by means of a continuous, continuous and documentary reflection of all business transactions.
Accounting Features:
* documented substantiation of facts;
* their continuous and continuous reflection;
The use of special methods of data processing (accounts, double entry, balance, etc.).
2. Definition, subject and objects of accounting
Accounting - an orderly system for collecting, registering and summarizing information in monetary terms about property, liabilities and their movement by means of a continuous, continuous and documentary reflection of all business transactions.
Accounting Features:
* documented substantiation of facts;
* their continuous and continuous reflection;
The use of special methods of data processing (accounts, double entry, balance, etc.).
Key management features - control and regulation, the implementation of which depends on information support. Accounting generates information about the results and condition of all areas of the organization’s activity, which is used to make managerial decisions, the essence of which is:
* planning the goals of the action;
* monitoring their implementation;
* assessment of decisions made.
The subject of accounting is an ordered and regulated information system that reflects the totality of property by composition and location, by the sources of their formation, business operations and the results of the organization’s activities in monetary terms.
Objects of accounting:
* property (household assets, assets);
* sources of formation of property (funds, assets);
* business processes.
Accounting is an ordered system for collecting, registering and summarizing information in monetary terms about property, liabilities of organizations and their movement through continuous, continuous and documentary accounting of all business transactions. Throughout the entire accounting period, all production and financial activities of the enterprise, the availability and movement of funds, their sources and current business operations are chronologically and systematically recorded in its registers. Accounting is carried out by continuous, continuous and sequential registration of all accounting information on the basis of properly executed primary accounting documents, which record the completed business operations. It is characterized by the use of special techniques and methods for processing economic information: accounting accounts, double entry of business transactions, balance sheet
Thus, accounting is a system of generalization and monitoring of financial and economic activities, reflected by streamlining and continuously using special documents in order to obtain data on the operation of the enterprise and monitor its activities.
Accounting, in addition to the theory of accounting, includes: management and financial accounting. 1. Financial accounting is a system for the preparation and collection of accounting information that ensures the registration and reflection of business transactions. The purpose of financial accounting is the preparation of financial (accounting) reports, including for external users, therefore it is required to be maintained by all organizations without exception. The rules for conducting financial accounting, as well as the procedure for preparing financial statements, are determined by law and based on generally accepted principles. 2. Management accounting is designed to collect internal accounting information that is used internally for making management decisions. Management accounting is a system for determining, collecting, measuring, as well as analyzing and transmitting to managers information that is necessary for planning the organization’s business, monitoring and managing various objects. This type of accounting is optional, the requirement for its use comes from the organization’s administration; at the same time, extraneous bodies do not affect the management accounting system.
The main objectives of accounting are:
· The formation of complete and accurate information about the organization’s activities and its property status, necessary for internal users of the financial statements - managers, founders, participants and owners of the organization’s property, as well as external - for investors, creditors and other users of financial statements;
· Providing information necessary for internal and external users of financial statements to control:
o compliance with the laws of the Russian Federation when carrying out business operations by the organization and their expediency;
o the presence and movement of property and liabilities;
o the use of material, labor and financial resources in accordance with the approved norms, standards and estimates;
· The prevention of negative results of economic activity of the organization and the identification of internal reserves to ensure its financial stability.
· In accordance with the Federal Law "On Accounting" N ° 129-ФЗ dated November 21, 1996, the following basic requirements are made for accounting:
· Accounting of property, liabilities and business operations of the organization are in the currency of the Russian Federation - in rubles;
· Property owned by the organization is accounted for separately from the property of other legal entities held by this organization;
· The organization keeps accounting continuously from the moment of its registration as a legal entity until the reorganization or liquidation in the manner prescribed by the legislation of the Russian Federation;
· The organization maintains accounting records of property, liabilities and business operations by double entry on interconnected accounting accounts included in the working chart of accounts;
· The data of analytical accounting must correspond to the turnover and balances of the accounts of synthetic accounting;
· All business operations and inventory results are subject to timely registration on accounting accounts without any omissions or exceptions;
· In the accounting of organizations, the current costs of production and investments in non-current assets are accounted for separately.
Features
Accounting has features, namely:
· Is documentary and evidence based;
· Continuity (every day) and sequence (without any omissions) of registration of all accounting information;
· Is cost accounting (funds and operations are recorded without fail in cost terms);
· Apply such methods of processing credentials as: accounts and balance sheets, double entry and inventory, etc.).
Cash - organizations in current and other bank accounts. They are used to settle accounts with suppliers and customers, with banks, and financial authorities through non-cash transfers. Small amounts of cash may be at the cash desk of the organization within the established limit.
Funds in the calculations - these are debts of other organizations or persons to this business entity. Such debt is called receivables, and debtors themselves - debtors. Receivables arises as a result of existing forms of payment for products, work and services in the case when their transfer to the buyer reflects payments for them. Debtors can be employees of the organization; called accountable persons.
As part of current assets, abstracted assets are also allocated. They may be represented by short-term financial investments and losses. Loss - This is the loss of assets as a result of irrational management or natural disasters. This part of the assets is completely eliminated from the economic turnover. However, at each enterprise, control over losses is established by the time of their occurrence and the procedure for covering them. Grouping of assets by type is presented in Fig. 1.1.
Long-term and current assets, in turn, are divided as follows:
Economic resources (assets) of an economic entity are formed by attracting various sources, therefore, it has obligations to organizations and persons who have provided their assets for temporary use.
Depending on the mechanism of formation and use of obligations distinguish: equity and attracted capital.
Equity - The most important source of formation of farm assets. It includes authorized capital, additional paid-in capital, reserve capital, retained earnings, target financing.
Charter capital (share capital, authorized capital) - originally invested capital. It is understood as the value of the property contributed by the owners or shareholders (participants) at the time of creation of the business entity (contributions of the founders, the value of fixed assets, intangible and other assets) necessary to ensure its statutory activities. Share capital is subject to change.
Extra capital - equity capital of the organization resulting from additional contributions by the owners of funds in excess of the registered authorized capital, changes in the value of assets.
The reserve capital (fund) is formed at the expense of a part of the organization’s profit and is used to cover losses arising as a result of emergency, dividends and income payment in case of insufficient profit.
retained earnings - part of the profit of the organization, remaining at its disposal as a source of financing.
Reserves for future expenses are created by organizations with the aim of uniformly including expenses for the payment of employee vacations, payment of bonuses for long service, and repair of fixed assets in the expenses of the reporting period.
Targeted financing as a source of generating assets comes from (the state and other organizations) is used to cover the costs associated with the implementation of targeted activities.
In case of insufficient own sources of formation of assets, organizations attract capital from the outside (attracted capital).
Attracted Capital - this is the obligations (debts) of this organization to other organizations and persons. Organizations and persons who have lent assets to this organization are called lenders, and liabilities arising from their receipt are called payables. Depending on the maturity of obligations distinguish between long-term borrowed capital and short-term borrowed capital.
Long-term borrowed capital includes bank loans and loans. Long term loans - the amount of funds received from banks for a period of more than one year to finance the organization of capital investments in fixed assets, advanced technologies, etc.
Long-term loans include the amounts received from the issuance and sale of labor stocks, bonds.
Short-term attracted capital by the mechanism of education can be combined into several groups:
- short-term loans and borrowings (obligations to banks and other organizations on loans and borrowings, the repayment period of which does not exceed 12 months after the reporting date). All loans issued by banks are paid, repayable, urgent and have a targeted nature;
- accounts payable (debts of an enterprise to suppliers for goods and services on promissory notes issued); the same group includes debts owed to their employees on accrued but not paid wages arising from the fact that the moment of their accrual and payments do not coincide in time. This is the same mechanism for the formation of debts to the social insurance and security bodies, to the tax budget;
- deferred income (funds received in advance, the repayment of which is expected in the next reporting periods - receiving an advance for an object that will be built several reporting periods; rent for the year, etc.).
The grouping of assets by sources of education is presented in Fig. 1.4.
The composition of equity and borrowed capital is presented in Figures 1.5. and 1.6.
Having studied the issue of classification of property of the enterprise, we will determine the subject of accounting.
Subject of accounting - reflection of the state and movement of assets, sources of their formation and the results of the business entity (organization). The content of the subject is most vividly revealed through accounting objects: long-term and short-term current assets, equity and attracted capital, and operations arising in the course of business activities.
Accounting method - a set of methods and techniques by which the subject (objects) of accounting is known. It allows you to study the phenomena in motion, change, interconnection and interaction. The accounting method depends on the subject of accounting, i.e. reflected and controlled objects, as well as the tasks set for it and the requirements for it.
Therefore, the method cannot be regarded as something frozen. The development of scientific and technological progress presents new requirements for accounting, and this causes a change in its methods and methods. For example, the use of computer technology leads to an improvement in the methods of monitoring, control and recording of business transactions, information retrieval.
The accounting method includes the following methods and techniques, which are commonly called elements of the accounting method: documentation and inventory, valuation and calculation, accounts and double entry, balance and reporting.
Documentation - a written certificate of a completed business transaction or of the right to commit it. Each business transaction is documented. The document serves not only as the basis for recording operations, but also as a way of initial observation and registration of them. The documentation serves the purpose of control, makes it possible to conduct documentary checks, to ensure the safety of property.
Inventory is a way of checking the correspondence of the actual availability of farm property in kind to accounting data: as an element of the accounting method, it is a means of monitoring and subsequent recording of phenomena and operations that are not reflected in the primary documentation at the time of their commission. Therefore, the inventory serves as an addition to the documentation.
Documentation and inventory are the methods of initial monitoring of accounting objects.
Rating - the way in which the assets of an economic entity receive a monetary value. The valuation of the assets of an economic entity is based on their actual cost, thereby achieving the reality of the valuation.
To manage business processes, you need to know all the costs associated with their implementation. In this case, not only the value of each type of cost is calculated, but also the total amount related to a particular object, i.e. determines the cost of the recorded objects. The cost of accounting objects is calculated using the calculation used to control the amount of costs.
For continuous monitoring of the organization’s business processes over the state of assets and the sources of their formation, it is necessary to take into account all business operations continuously at the stages of the circuit, as well as in the context of individual groups and types of economic assets. In accounting, such a reflection of household assets and processes is carried out by observing the changes that occur with various types of property and the sources of its formation, all costs incurred in a particular business process.
The economic grouping of accounting objects and obtaining necessary information about them for the purpose of ongoing monitoring of economic activity is ensured by a system of accounts. The use of accounts is explained by the fact that the information available in the documents gives only a scattered description of the objects of accounting, while the accounts make it possible to obtain their generalized characteristics.
The reflection of business transactions in the system of accounts is carried out using a double entry, the essence of which is the interconnected reflection of various phenomena caused by business transactions.
Control over the entire set of objects in accounting is carried out by comparing the assets with the sources of their formation. This comparison is called balance sheet generalization. It is characterized by the equality of the total amount of types of funds and the sum of the sources of their education. This equality remains constant.
The results of economic activities are contained in the statements of the organization. Financial statements - a single system of information on the financial position of an economic entity for a certain period of time.
The assets of the organization participate in the economic turnover continuously, changing its composition and form of value. To guide business entities, you need to know what assets they have, from what sources they are created, for what purpose they are intended. The balance sheet gives an answer to these questions.
Balance sheet - a way to summarize and group assets of the economy and the sources of their formation at a certain date in a monetary value. As an element of the accounting method, it is characterized by the following features.
The assets of the economy and the sources of their education are presented separately: economic resources are in the asset, and sources are in the liability. The total balance sheet asset is always equal to the total balance sheet liability:
ASSETS \u003d LIABILITIES.
Since liabilities represent the capital and liabilities of the organization, this equality can be represented as follows:
ASSETS \u003d CAPITAL + LIABILITIES.
In the balance sheet, assets and liabilities are presented only in cost terms.
Each element of an asset and liability is called a balance sheet item. Any article of the asset balance allows you to get the following characteristics of economic resources: what is embodied in this part of the assets, where used, their size.
Any article of the liabilities side of the balance sheet allows you to get the following characteristics of the sources of formation of economic resources: from which source this part of the assets was created, for what purpose are they intended, their value.
All articles of the asset and liability of the balance sheet based on their economic homogeneity are summarized in certain sections of the balance sheet.
The balance sheet asset contains two sections: non-current assets; current assets.
Liabilities balance consists of three sections: capital and reserves; long term duties ; Short-term liabilities.
Sections in the asset balance are located in increasing liquidity, and in liabilities - in the degree of consolidation of sources.
The composition of the sections of the balance sheet and the procedure for grouping articles in them are regulated by regulatory acts.
The balance sheet contains a set of moment indicators characterizing the assets of the economy and the sources of their formation at a certain date.
Thus, balance sheet - this is a way of grouping farm assets by type and source of their formation in value terms as of a specific date.
The grouping of economic resources in the asset balance is presented in table 1.1.
Section I of the asset of the balance sheet “Non-current assets” presents all long-term assets of an economic entity: intangible assets, fixed assets, long-term financial investments, capital investments.
Articles of the Intangible Assets group are measured in the balance sheet at their residual value. The residual value of this group of assets is determined as the difference between the initial (replacement) value and the amount of accrued depreciation.
Articles of the Fixed Assets group are also evaluated, with the exception of the article Land. Depreciation for this type of asset is not charged. In the balance sheet all fixed assets and intangible assets are presented in one section, regardless of the scope of operation.
The articles of the Financial Investments group reflect investments in cash and other property in other business entities for a period of more than one year; under the article “Capital investments” - actual costs in construction in progress.
Section II of the asset of the balance sheet “Current assets” reflects non-current assets by several groups. In the “Reserves” group, separate articles present circulating assets of the production sphere. Raw materials are valued in the balance sheet at the actual procurement cost. Costs of work in progress can be estimated at the standard cost, the amount of direct costs or the actual production cost. The same section also reflects the items of circulation: finished products and goods shipped, deferred expenses, which should be measured at actual cost.
The second group of current assets is represented by short-term financial investments in other organizations. The group “Cash” is represented by the articles “Cash desk”, “Settlement accounts”, “Currency accounts”, “Other cash”.
In the same section of the asset, receivables of both other organizations and persons, as well as employees of this business entity are reflected.
The balance sheet liability consists of three sections (Table 1.2.). Section III of the balance sheet is represented by equity, and sections IV and V reflect borrowed capital.
In section III of the balance sheet “Capital and reserves”, independent articles reflect own sources of property formation - authorized capital, additional capital, reserve capital. The same section shows the retained earnings of the enterprise of previous years and the reporting year. Independent articles presented uncovered loss.
The articles of section IV of the balance sheet “Long-term liabilities” characterize the debt to banks on loans and borrowings received from other organizations for a period of more than one year.
Section V of the balance sheet “Short-term liabilities” unites several groups of short-term debt: borrowed funds, accounts payable, reserves for future expenses, deferred income.
In the group “Borrowed funds”, independent articles reflect debt to banks on short-term loans and borrowings to other enterprises.
The accounts payable group items reflect debts to suppliers and contractors for the goods and material assets received from them, to subsidiaries and affiliates, employees of the organization, budget, and social funds.
Depending on the purpose, content and preparation procedure, several types of balances are distinguished.
The balance sheet characterizes in monetary terms the assets of the economy and the sources of their formation as of a certain date. The balance is compiled by the accounting of organizations by calculating the balances (balances) on the accounts.
The working balance, in addition to the balances of assets and the sources of their formation at the beginning and end of the period, contains data on their movement (debit and credit turnover) for the reporting period.
The opening balance sheet (initial) is the first balance sheet drawn up at the date of registration of the organization. An asset of such a balance characterizes the composition of the property of an economic entity with which its activity begins, and in passive - the sources of its occurrence. The opening balance sheet contains fewer items than subsequent balances reflecting the results of economic activities for a certain period of time. Before drawing up the opening balance sheet, as a rule, an inventory and assessment of the available resources of the organization is carried out.
Final balance - a reporting document on the production and financial activities of the organization for a certain period of time. It is compiled on the basis of verified accounting records (reconciliation of turnover and account balances, verification by inventory of assets).
The liquidation balance sheet is intended to characterize the property status of the organization at the date of termination of its activities as a legal entity.
A preliminary balance sheet is developed in advance at the end of the reporting period, taking into account the expected changes in the composition of the property of the organization. The basis for the preparation of such a balance is the actual accounting data on the state of assets and liabilities at the time of its compilation and the expected data on business transactions that will be completed before the end of the reporting period. A preliminary balance allows you to pre-establish the financial position of the organization at the end of the reporting period.
The gross balance includes regulatory articles; used for scientific research, improving the information functions of the balance, etc.
Net balance - balance sheet from which regulatory articles are excluded: “Depreciation of fixed assets”, “Depreciation of intangible assets”, etc. in modern conditions, the value of the net balance has increased, since it allows you to determine the real value of the organization’s assets. The net balance sheet is currently the current reporting form.
Every day, organizations carry out many business operations that affect the value of assets and the sources of their formation. Since the balance reflects the state of the property, each operation affects the balance by changing the value of its items. Depending on the effect on the balance sheet, all business operations are usually divided into four types.
The first type of business transactions involves regrouping the composition of the organization’s assets. The first type includes operations on the receipt of funds to the current account from the cash desk or from debtors, the issue of money from the cash desk to accountable persons, the return of unspent amounts by the accountable persons to the cashier, the release of materials from the warehouse to production, the receipt of finished goods from the production warehouse, and shipment finished products from stock to customers, etc.
The second type of business operations is associated with the regrouping of obligations of the organization. The second type also includes operations on the use of profit for the creation of accumulation and consumption funds.
Thus, business operations of the second type lead to changes only in the liabilities side of the balance sheet. The total balance sheet total does not change.
The third type of business operations is associated with an increase in property. Operations of the third type include operations on the calculation of wages to personnel of the organization, on crediting credits to its accounts, on obtaining loans, etc.
The fourth type of business transactions is associated with the reduction (disposal) of property.
The operations of the fourth type include operations on the payment of wages to staff of the organization, the repayment of debts to suppliers, the budget, social funds.
Reflecting the state of economic resources at a certain point in time, the balance reveals the structure of assets and sources of their formation in the context of types and groups, allows you to determine the specific gravity of each group, their relationship and interdependence, serves as a source of information necessary to identify the most important indicators characterizing its financial state.
According to the balance sheet, the security of assets, the correctness of their use, the size of inventories, compliance with financial discipline, profitability of work, etc. are determined, signaling deficiencies in work and financial condition, it serves as the basis for identifying their causes.
Based on the balance sheet data, measures are developed to eliminate them, the correct use of assets for their intended purpose is monitored. It gives a complete and complete picture not only of the financial condition of the enterprise at each moment, but also of the changes that have occurred over a given period of time. The latter is achieved by comparing balances for a number of reporting periods.
The organization’s balance sheet summarizes data on accounting objects for a specific date. The operational management of the organization in order to make appropriate management decisions necessitates having continuous information about the state and movement of assets and their sources of formation. In this regard, the accounting system uses an account system.
Billing system - a method of economic grouping, current reflection and operational control of the organization’s assets and business operations.
Each account is intended to reflect a specific accounting object. Based on the primary documents, current data on homogeneous business transactions are accumulated and systematized on the account.
Accounting accounts in relation to the balance are divided into two groups: accounts for accounting for assets (asset accounts) and accounts for accounting for sources of formation of assets (accounts for sources).
All asset accounts are active accounts. They have the following structure: account balance (can only be debit), debit turnover (means the receipt of assets), loan turnover (their use, disposal).
Transactions on any active account may have a final balance (CK) greater than 0 or equal to 0, which will be reflected in the diagram as follows.
On the active account, the final balance (Ck) cannot be less than zero, since it is impossible to spend more assets than they were.
Active accounts include “Fixed assets”, “Materials”, “Cashier”, “Settlement account”, “Intangible assets”, “Settlements with founders”, etc.
All accounts of sources of formation of assets are passive. in the passive account, the initial balance is always reflected in the loan (credit balance), on the same side of the account the increase in sources is also reflected. The decrease in sources is reflected in the debit of passive accounts. When reflecting operations on a passive account, two cases may arise.
Passive accounts include “Authorized capital”, “Settlements on short-term loans and borrowings”, “Settlements with suppliers and contractors”, “Settlements with personnel for pay”, etc.
A special group consists of active-passive accounts, combining the characteristics of active and passive accounts. An example is the “Other income and expenses” account, the debit of which reflects other expenses, and the loan - other income. Comparing the turnover on the account, we determine the balance, which can be either on the debit of the account (expenses exceeded other income) or on the credit of the account (other income is greater than other expenses). Separate accounts can have two balances at once.
There is a close relationship between accounts and balance:
- as a rule, each item in the balance sheet corresponds to an account, except for cases when individual items reflect data from several accounts (for example, the item “Raw materials and materials” contains balances on the accounts “Materials”, “Procurement and purchase of materials”, (“Deviations in the cost of materials ”) Or vice versa, balances on some accounts are shown in the balance sheet by several articles (account“ Settlements with suppliers and contractors ”);
- accounts are divided into active and passive similar to balance sheet items;
- balances of assets and sources of their formation are shown on accounts on the same side as in the balance sheet;
- the amount of balances on all active accounts is equal to the total of the asset (currency) of the balance sheet, and for all passive accounts - to the total of the liability (currency) of the balance sheet;
- the balance sheet is compiled on the basis of the data of the accounting accounts, and the accounts are opened on the basis of the balance sheet data.
All business transactions are recorded in the accounts of the double-entry method.
Double entry - a way of reflecting each operation in the debit of one and the credit of another of interconnected accounts in the same amount.
The use of double entry is objective in nature and is associated with the dual nature of the reflection of business transactions. The need for double entry is expressed in four types of balance sheet changes.
Double entry gives accounting systemic character, provides interconnection between accounts, which allows you to combine them into a single system.
Double-entry is of great information value, as it allows you to receive information about the movement of economic resources and the sources of their formation, and helps control the movement of assets and the sources of their formation.
Double entry makes it possible to verify the economic content of business transactions and the legitimacy of their implementation, from a single operation to ending with the balance sheet, ensures the identification of errors in the accounts. Each amount is reflected in the debit and credit of different accounts, so the turnover in the debit of all accounts must be equal to the turnover in the credit of these accounts. Violation of equality indicates errors in the records, which must be found and corrected.
Each business transaction is reflected in the accounts of accounting double-entry method. Moreover, the transaction amount is reflected in the debit of one and the credit of another account, i.e. between the accounts on which the transaction is reflected, a relationship arises.
The relationship between the debit of one and the credit of the other account resulting from the double recording of a business transaction on them is called the correspondence of accounts. Accounts between which such a relationship has arisen are called offsetting.
Designation of correspondence of accounts, i.e. the names of debited and credited accounts indicating the amount for this operation is called ACCOUNTING RECORD (posting).
Accounting records for the number of accounts affected by them are divided into simple and complex.
Simple accounting records are those in which only two accounts correspond - one for debit and one for credit.
Complicated are accounting records in which a single debit account corresponds to several credit accounts or vice versa.
When making complex transactions, it should be borne in mind that only the record in which the correspondence of the accounts is clearly expressed is correct, therefore, it is not necessary to draw up an accounting record that simultaneously affects several debited and credited accounts.
Accounting records are carried out on the basis of documents in which the content of the business transaction is recorded. To control the completeness of the reflection of all business transactions, accounting records are recorded in the sequence of economically diverse operations. The reflection of business transactions in chronological sequence is called a chronological record.
To determine the indicators of economic activity, all business operations are grouped according to economically homogeneous characteristics.
Grouping of accounts by economic content is carried out to determine the list of accounts and their homogeneous groups necessary to reflect the economic activities of an individual organization.
Applications for business transactions on a particular system are called systematic. Chronological and systematic records can be kept separately and together.
To manage business activities, it is necessary to have information about accounting objects of varying degrees of detail in terms of information volume. Therefore, to obtain data of varying degrees of detail, all accounts in accounting are divided into two groups: synthetic and analytical. Synthetic accounts serve for enlarged grouping and accounting for homogeneous objects, and analytical accounts are used for detailed characteristics.
The reflection of property and processes on synthetic accounts is called synthetic accounting, and their reflection on analytical accounts is called analytical accounting.
Synthetic accounting is carried out in monetary terms; analytical - uses three groups of meters. In analytical accounts reflecting inventory values, accounting is kept in cash and in-kind meters, i.e. in quantitative and total terms.
Synthetic and analytical accounts are closely interconnected. The basis of the relationship is the parallelism of entries in the accounts. The relationship between synthetic and analytical accounts is expressed in the following:
- analytical accounts are maintained to detail the synthetic accounts;
- the operation recorded on the synthetic account must be reflected in the corresponding analytical accounts opened to this synthetic account;
- on a synthetic account, the transaction is recorded by the total amount, and on its analytical accounts by private amounts, giving as a result the same total amount;
- writing to analytical accounts is performed on the same side as to the synthetic account, i.e. their structure is the same.
Therefore, the initial and final balances, as well as the turnover on the debit and credit of the synthetic account, must be equal to the total amounts of the corresponding balances and turns of its analytical accounts opened in its development. When summing up for the reporting period, the data of the synthetic and analytical accounts should be checked and match, which indicates the correctness of accounting.
It should be noted that some of the accounts of synthetic accounting reflect funds or sources of funds that do not require further details. Such synthetic accounts do not have analytical accounts (Cashier, Settlement Account, Authorized Capital).
The intermediate place between synthetic and analytical accounts is occupied by subaccounts. Subaccount - a method of grouping data of analytical accounts.
The number of synthetic accounts and sub-accounts is determined by the requirements for reporting, and the number of analytical accounts is determined by the requirements of managing an economic body.
The data of synthetic and analytical accounts are summarized at the end of the reporting period in order to obtain summary information.
Chart of accounts - classification of the general nomenclature of synthetic accounting indicators. In the Russian Federation, a unified Chart of Accounts has been developed and is being used, approved by the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation on October 31, 2000 No. 94н.
This means that all organizations, regardless of their legal form, are required to use this Chart of Accounts for accounting. For ease of use, all accounts are summarized in 8 sections, in accordance with the grouping of accounts by economic content.
Fig. Chart of accounts structure
The chart of accounts has developed instructions for its use, and typical correspondence of accounts is also given.
Thus, accounting is characterized by the formation of economic information within individual business entities on the basis of continuous and continuous registration of economic processes and phenomena; documenting business transactions; the use of special techniques and methods for their collection and processing; use as the main money meter.
Accounting is a regulated system based on a number of principles. The current level of its development meets the requirements of a market economy, is based on national regulations for accounting and reporting that meet international standards.
Foreword
The idea of \u200b\u200bthis article came about as a result of communication with accountants, both personal and online. The goal is to give in a short article (the accountant, as a rule, is always busy, he does not have time to read long works) basic concepts - both theoretical and practical - for work and further study of accounting. How I managed to do this is not for me to judge.
About questions. The article contains questions from tests for certification of auditors. Tests are received on open sites on the Internet. All questions are optional. There is a desire - you can think about the question, but if there is no desire, then you can not think. The above questions are not always related to the material in the above section. To answer some questions, logic and common sense are enough. It is very important to understand that while common sense with accounting has not yet been canceled. I hope that they will not be canceled in the future.
1. Introduction
Article 1 of the Law "On Accounting" (Federal Law No. 129-FZ of 11.21.96) gives the following definition of accounting:
Accounting is an ordered system of collecting, registering and summarizing information in monetary terms about property, liabilities of organizations and their movement through continuous, continuous and documentary accounting of all business operations.
The objects of accounting are the property of organizations, their obligations and business operations carried out by organizations in the process of their activities.
The cited definition can be memorized. Then it is very useful when passing exams at the institute, for the certificate of an auditor, a professional accountant or for successfully passing testing when hiring. He is often asked.
According to paragraph 4 of Article 8 of Law No. 129-FZ, accounting of property, liabilities and business transactions is carried out by double entry on interconnected accounting accounts.
Without touching upon the features of accounting as a system, let us dwell on recording transactions (i.e., events, facts of economic activity) for the purpose of summarizing information. In this aspect, accounting is a special language. To learn to speak this language, you must first learn words and simple sentences.
The words of the accounting language are bills. Postings are his suggestions. Grammar is very simple. An offer (posting) always consists of two words (accounts) and an amount (monetary value) in rubles. This is called double recording. It is more difficult to understand from which words a meaningful sentence can be composed, and from which it is impossible. We will begin with the study of words and some sentences. But first, some clarifications about the accountant's responsibility.
Responsibility for the organization accounting and compliance with legislation when performing business operations, Law 129-FZ (Article 6) imposes on the head. In turn, the chief accountant is responsible for the formation of accounting policies, management accounting, timely submission of complete and accurate financial statements, and also ensures compliance of business operations with the legislation, control over the movement of property and fulfillment of obligations.
Thus, it is the manager who is responsible for the organization of accounting, but this responsibility ends after taking the necessary organizational measures. Both the head and the chief accountant are responsible for compliance with the legislation in carrying out activities, but the chief responsibility lies with the head, since the chief accountant is subordinate to him. The chief accountant should not accept for execution and execution of documents on operations that are contrary to applicable law. He is obliged to inform the head of such documents (operations) and receive instructions on their acceptance for accounting.
We also note that the chief accountant cannot be assigned duties directly related to material liability for money and other inventory items (since it is the chief accountant who must control their receipt and expenditure). The accountant is not mentioned in the list of employee positions (Appendix 1 to Resolution of the Ministry of Labor of the Russian Federation No. 85 dated 12/31/02) with which the employer may conclude full liability contracts in accordance with Article 244 of the Labor Code. Therefore, the chief accountant should not receive cash and tangible assets from checks and other documents. Violating this rule is allowed only in small enterprises that do not have a cashier on staff. In a small enterprise, the duties of a cashier can be performed by the chief accountant by a written order (order) of the head.
Questions
Is entrepreneurship at risk?
Only at the beginning of entrepreneurial activity;
What is accounting:
A system for collecting and registering information about property, liabilities of the organization and their movement;
Ordered system collecting, registering and summarizing information in monetary terms about property, liabilities of organizations and their movement through continuous, continuous and documentary accounting of all business operations;
A system for collecting and summarizing information about accounting objects by means of continuous, continuous and documentary accounting of operations performed at the enterprise.
Responsibility for organizing the storage of primary accounting documents, accounting registers and financial statements is:
Head of the organization;
Chief accountant of the organization;
Chief Accountant together with a representative of the legal service.
2. Accounting accounts
The current organization has owned property (things, including money, securities), as well as property rights (Article 128 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). In addition to property, an enterprise has debts (obligations) to personnel, suppliers, the state, etc. For accounting purposes, the whole variety of things, rights and obligations is divided into groups of homogeneous objects. Each such group is assigned a special code (designation), which is called an accounting account. The invoice includes a numerical designation and name.
For example:
10 "Materials" - an account for the cost of materials (fuel, spare parts, metal, paper, semi-finished products, inventory, etc.);
20 "Main production" - account for the accounting of costs of production;
26 "General expenses" - the account of management and other expenses that are not directly related to the output, but relate to the whole enterprise as a whole;
41 "Goods" - an account for accounting the value of goods;
43 "Finished products" - an account for the accounting of finished products;
44 "Costs for sale" - an account for the expenses of trade organizations, as well as expenses for the sale of products;
50 "Cashier" - cash account at the organization's cash desk;
51 "Settlement account" - account for non-cash funds in the bank account;
60 "Settlements with suppliers and contractors" and 62 "Settlements with buyers and customers" - accounts to account for the relevant calculations - who, whom and how much;
68 "Settlements with the budget" - the account of accounting for settlements with the budget for taxes and duties - whether the organization owes the state or it owes it;
70 "Settlements with personnel for remuneration of labor" - an account for accounting for settlements with personnel for accrual and payment of wages.
In the theory of accounting, the following definition is given: an account is a way of grouping and current reflection and control over the state and movement of economic assets and sources of their formation, as well as economic processes and results of economic activity.
The two main groups of accounts are property accounts (10, 41, 50, 51, etc.) and settlement accounts (60, 62, 68, 70, etc.). In addition to them, there are regulatory, costing, matching accounts. They are designed to perform certain functions that together ensure the achievement of accounting goals.
For accounting of property not belonging to the organization, as well as reference accounting of own property transferred for use to other organizations, issued and received guarantees, etc. off-balance accounts apply. When reflecting operations on off-balance accounts double entry rule not applicable. Therefore, postings to off-balance accounts have the following form (conditional example): Debit - 150,000 rubles. - received property for rent valued at 150,000 rubles., Credit - 150,000 rubles. - property returned to the lessee.
The coding and names of accounts are defined in the chart of accounts (Chart of accounts for the accounting of financial and economic activities of organizations, approved by order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation No. 94n dated October 31, 2000). Order No. 94n also approved the Instructions for the application of the chart of accounts. This chart of accounts must be applied by all organizations, with the exception of credit (banks) and budget organizations, which keep records using other accounts.
Accounts corresponding to the most general, enlarged classification of homogeneous accounting objects are called synthetic. Accounting carried out on synthetic accounts (synthetic accounting) is carried out only in monetary terms.
Detailed accounting within common groups of homogeneous objects is called analytical given. Analytical accounts are opened in addition to synthetic ones for collecting, accumulating and receiving information for each type of assets and liabilities of the organization. Obviously, the balances and revolutions of the synthetic account must always be equal to the sum of the balances (revolutions) of all of their (open inside this account) analytical accounts.
The first step (level) of analytical accounting is the introduction of sub-accounts, an intermediate link between synthetic and analytical accounts. For example, according to the Instruction in the chart of accounts, on the account “Settlements with suppliers and contractors”, it is necessary to take into account separately the debt to the supplier for the delivered goods and materials, the amount of advances issued and the amount of debt secured by the supplier of his own bills. In accordance with these requirements, the corresponding sub-accounts (60.1, 60.2, etc.) are opened within the synthetic account “Settlements with suppliers and contractors”.
Analytical accounting can be conducted without opening subaccounts. For example, analytical accounting for the Fixed Assets account is maintained for each fixed asset facility, analytical accounting for the Payroll Staff Accounts account is maintained for each employee. In this case, each object of fixed assets or each employee is a separate object of analytical accounting (account).
Accounting on analytical accounts can (and in some cases - should) be carried out not only in monetary terms, but also in physical terms. For example, accounting for fuel in subaccount 10.3 “Fuel” is carried out both in monetary (value) terms and in liters or tons. Parallel cost accounting and accounting in physical terms provide a link between accounting and the production process.
General rules for constructing analytical accounting are set out in the instructions to the chart of accounts. Building a specific system of analytical accounting in the organization is the task of accounting. It should be decided on the basis of accounting principles, especially the requirements of rationality. Great help in the correct formulation of analytical accounting can provide industry instructions. In any case, you need to open only the really necessary analytical accounts. It is not rational to create small analytical accounts (features) such as, for example, “Costs of a bank guarantee”, “Costs of collection”, “Costs of settlement and cash services”, etc. Excessive analytic detail increases the complexity of accounting, leads to errors and does not provide any useful information.
Questionfrom tests for qualification exams. You need to select the correct answer from the proposed options.
The shortage of inventories is recorded on the credit of the account:
10 "Materials"
15 "Procurement and acquisition of material assets"
94 "Gaps and losses from damage to values"
5. Monetary expression. Rating
The monetary value in the transaction must correspond to the real value of the accounting object. Those. An asset costs as much as we paid for it (excluding value added tax in the general case). That's what it is main valuation method - at actual cost.
The actual cost price consists not only of the amounts paid to the supplier, but also other expenses (transportation, installation, commissioning, etc.). For example, the actual cost of inventories (materials, raw materials, finished products, goods) may include (Clause 6 of PBU 5/01 “Accounting for inventories”):
amounts paid in accordance with the contract to the supplier (seller);
amounts paid to organizations for information and consulting services related to the acquisition of inventories;
customs duties;
non-refundable taxes paid in connection with the acquisition of a unit of inventories;
remuneration paid to the intermediary organization through which inventories are acquired;
the costs of procurement and delivery of inventories to the place of their use, including insurance costs. These costs include, in particular, the costs of procuring and delivering inventories;
expenses for the maintenance of the organization’s procurement and storage unit, costs for transport services for the delivery of inventories to the place of their use, if they are not included in the price of inventories established by the contract; accrued interest on loans provided by suppliers (commercial loan); interest on borrowed funds accrued prior to adoption for accounting of inventories, if they are involved in the acquisition of these reserves;
the costs of bringing inventories to the state in which they are suitable for use for planned purposes. These costs include the expenses of the organization for part-time work, sorting, packing and improving the technical characteristics of the stocks received, not related to the production of goods, performance of work and the provision of services;
other costs directly related to the acquisition of inventories.
In some situations, the organization incurs some expenses, regarding which it is impossible to assert with certainty that they are directly related to the formation of the value of the accounting object. In this case, the final decision rests with the accountant, his professional judgment. When making such a decision, one must be guided by the requirement of prudence (paragraph 7 of PBU 1/98 "Accounting policies of the organization"), the essence of which is greater readiness for recognition in accounting of expenses and liabilities than possible incomes and assets. Those. it is better to consider such costs not in the value of the asset received, but in the current expenses of the organization.
As always, separate exceptions are possible from the general rule. For example, trade organizations may include the costs of procurement and delivery of goods to their warehouses, made before they are put on sale, as part of the costs of the sale (that is, include them in the debit of the account), and not include them in the cost of goods (on the debit of the account )
In addition, organizations engaged in retail trade and catering are allowed to evaluate purchased goods by sale value with a separate account of margins (discounts). The sale value of the goods is formed by posting D 41 "Goods" - K 42 "Trade margin", i.e. previously formed purchase value of the goods increases by the amount of the trade margin.
In some cases, accounting is applied at normative (planned) prices. Deviations of standard prices from the actual cost are accumulated in special accounts and subsequently either written off to the value of the accounting object, or to the expenses of the organization. The analysis of such deviations from the planned (normative) indicators is a powerful means of control.
The valuation of the accounting object is formed at the time of receipt the organization of the object (at the time of its adoption for accounting) and as a general rule is not subject to change. Revaluation at subsequent times is allowed only for fixed assets (in case of reconstruction, modernization, etc., as well as by decision of the head at market prices). It is also necessary to reassess financial investments (for example, securities) by which market value can be determined.
Inventories (MPZ) are not revalued. If stocks are outdated, lost quality, etc., then they are reflected in the balance sheet net of allowance for the reduction in the value of tangible assets. The reserve for reducing the value of material assets is formed at the expense of the financial results of the organization (i.e., is accounted for as non-operating expenses) by the amount of the difference between the current market value and the actual cost of inventories, if the latter is higher than the current market value.
The prohibition on revaluation of an item of accounting does not apply to a situation where the actual cost of the item is not formed correctly, in violation of the requirements of accounting regulations. In this case, it is necessary to correct the erroneous estimate using correctional wiring. Another situation in which an adjustment is possible is the receipt of inventories without accompanying documents (unbilled deliveries). Such inventories are accounted for (conditional) assessment. After receiving the settlement documents, the assessment of the MPZ is adjusted.
The rules and features of the assessment of various accounting objects are regulated by the relevant Accounting Regulations (PBU):
PBU 2/94 "Accounting for contracts (contracts) for capital construction";
PBU 3/2000 "Accounting for assets and liabilities whose value is expressed in foreign currency";
PBU 5/01 "Accounting for inventories";
PBU 6/01 "Accounting for fixed assets";
PBU 14/2000 "Accounting for intangible assets";
PBU 15/01 "Accounting for loans and credits and the costs of their servicing";
PBU 17/02 "" Cost Accounting for Research, Development and Technological Work ";
PBU 19/02 "Accounting for financial investments."
Questions
Without fail
When reflecting this accounting option in accounting policies
These costs are mandatory included in the actual cost of purchased goods
When transferring goods for sale on a commission basis, they are recorded on the account:
45 "Goods shipped"
62 "Settlements with buyers and customers"
90 "Sales"
Can an organization independently overestimate materials in connection with inflation?
The costs of modernization and reconstruction of fixed assets write off:
To increase the initial cost of objects
General expenses
General production expenses
For the expenses of the main production
6. The balance sheet. Active and passive accounts.
Let's go back to example 1. Suppose that the initial balance of the account "Current account" is 10,000 rubles. Those. on the current account, the organization had this amount received due to the payment by the founders of the authorized capital. Accounts turnover can be "collected" and visualized in balance sheet:
Score |
Opening balance |
Revs |
Balance on the end |
|||
Debit |
Credit |
By debit |
On loan |
Debit |
Credit |
|
Explanation: Record on the account "Authorized capital" (posting D 75 - K 80, then at the time of payment of shares or shares D 75 - K 51) is made at the time of registration of the organization for the amount of the authorized capital reflected in the Charter. The example assumes that the authorized capital is 10,000 rubles. and paid in full.
Obvious consequences of the double-entry method: the sum of balances (account balances) on debit is always, at any given time, equal to the sum of balances on the loan. The total turnover on the debit of all accounts is always equal to the total turnover on the credit of accounts.
Therefore, if some accounts have a debit balance, other accounts will necessarily have a credit balance. Accounts that can only have a debit balance are called active. Examples of active accounts are accounts,,,. Obviously, you cannot take more money from the cashier than is available in it. In the same way, it is impossible to use up more materials than has arrived at the warehouse.
Accounts that can only have credit balances are called passive. Examples of passive accounts are accounts and. Classification of accounts into active and passive can be used to verify the correctness of the reflection of operations in accounting. Many accounting programs highlight debit balances of passive accounts or credit balances of active accounts in red, which is a signal of accounting errors.
Questionfrom tests for qualification exams. You need to select the correct answer from the proposed options.
What should the balance in the account "Authorized capital" correspond to:
The size of the Criminal Code recorded in the constituent documents of the organization;
The size of the Criminal Code actually paid by the founders (participants);
Contributions of the founders (participants) received to the account (at the cash desk) of the organization.
7. Income and expenses
The concepts of income and expenses are defined, respectively, in PBU 9/99 "Organization income" and PBU 10/99 "Organization expenses".
So, according to paragraph 2 of PBU 9/99, d the organization’s expenses are recognized as an increase in economic benefits resulting from the receipt of assets (cash, other property) and (or) repayment of obligations, which leads to an increase in the capital of this organization. At the same time, it is believed that the increase in the economic benefits of the organization occurs when the organization received an asset for payment, or there is no uncertainty regarding the receipt of the asset. Income from purchases of VAT amounts, advances in the form of advances or prepayments, deposits, collaterals, receipts of assets not related to the transfer of ownership of them (for example, from the principal), as well as repayment of the loan provided to the counterparty, are not recognized as income.
Costs (Clause 2 of PBU 10/99) a decrease in economic benefits resulting from the disposal of assets (cash, other property) and / or the occurrence of liabilities is recognized, which leads to a decrease in the capital of the organization.
Income and expenses relate to the reporting period in which they have taken place, regardless of the actual time of receipt or payment of funds associated with these facts ( assumption of temporal certainty of factors of economic activity - Clause 6 of PBU 1/98). At the same time, income and expenses take place in the period when the conditions for their recognition are met (clause 12 PBU 9/99 and clause 16 PBU 10/99). The main of these recognition conditions isthe occurrence of the right to receive income - for income or the occurrence of an obligation to make an expense - for expenses, not the actual receipt or disposal of assets.
The income of the organization, depending on their nature, conditions of receipt and areas of activity of the organization are divided into
income from ordinary activities and
other income (operating, non-operating and extraordinary income).
In exactly the same way as income, the organization’s expenses are divided into
expenses for ordinary activities and
other expenses (operating, non-operating and extraordinary expenses).
TO ordinary activities as a rule, they include the types of activities that the organization carries out on an ongoing basis and each of which provides at least 5% of the total income. However, to classify income and expenses as income (expenses) from ordinary activities, an organization may use a different indicator. Income from ordinary activities are called revenue.
Revenues from ordinary activities are accounted for under the credit of the account “Sales” on subaccount 90.1 “Revenue”. Expenses for ordinary activities are deducted from the credit of the expense accounts in the debit of the account (subaccount 90.2 "Cost of sales") or in the debit of another subaccount of the account, depending on the setting of the cost accounting.
Operating income includes income from operations not related to the sale of assets, for example, income from the rental of property, interest on loans granted, and also operations related to the sale of property, for example, sale of securities, surplus materials, one-time sales of goods, etc. .P. The organization does not carry out these operations systematically, or does not have sufficient income from them to consider such income from operations as income from ordinary activities.
Operating expenses include expenses related to the extraction of operating income, as well as interest on loans and credits received.
How non-operating income takes into account fines, penalties, penalties for violation of the terms of contracts, gratuitously received assets, exchange differences, debited amounts payable, etc. also in non-operating expenses include fines, penalties, forfeits for violation of the terms of the contracts, damages received, written-off amounts of receivables, negative exchange rate differences, etc. costs.
Operating and non-operating income (other income under PBU 9/99) are accounted for under the credit of the account “Other income and expenses” on subaccount 91.1 “Other income”. Operating and non-operating expenses are accounted for in the debit of the account (sub-account 91.2 “Other expenses”).
Extraordinary income (expense) includes income (expense) arising as a consequence of emergency circumstances of economic activity (natural disaster, fire, accident, nationalization, etc.). The composition of extraordinary incomes reflects: insurance compensation, the value of material assets remaining from writing off assets unsuitable for restoration and further use, etc. As part of extraordinary expenses reflect expenses incurred due to the listed extraordinary circumstances. Extraordinary income and expenses are recorded in the profit and loss account.
The stated rules of PBU 9/99 and 10/99 determine the most general rules for accounting and recognition of income and expenses. There may be exceptions to these rules - for small businesses(SMP). Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation No. 64n dated 12/21/98 approved the Model Recommendations for the organization of accounting for small businesses. In accordance with paragraph 20 of the Model Recommendations, small enterprises (MP) can decide when accounting for income and expenses not to comply with the assumption of temporary certainty of facts of economic activity and use cash accounting method. In this case, the costs (expenses) associated with the production and sale of products, works, services are reflected in account 20 “Main production” only in terms of paid material assets, services, paid wages, accrued depreciation and other paid costs. In turn, the fact of implementation is reflected in the account only at the time of receipt of funds or the repayment of the buyer's debt in another way (exchange agreement, offset of mutual debt, etc.).
According to Article 3 of Federal Law dated 14.06.95 No. 88-FZ "On State Support of Small Business in the Russian Federation," SMEs are understood as commercial organizations, in the authorized capital of which are the shares of the Russian Federation, constituent entities of the Russian Federation, public and religious organizations (associations), and charitable and other funds does not exceed 25%, the share belonging to one or several legal entities that are not small businesses does not exceed 25% and in which the average number of employees for the reporting period does not exceed the following maximum levels:
in industry - 100 people;
in construction - 100 people;
by transport - 100 people;
in agriculture - 60 people;
in the scientific and technical sphere - 60 people;
in wholesale trade - 50 people;
in retail trade and consumer services - 30 people;
in other sectors and in the implementation of other activities - 50 people.
Small businesses are also understood as individuals engaged in entrepreneurial activities without forming a legal entity.
Questionsfrom the tests. You need to select the correct answer from the proposed options.
Revenue is accepted for accounting:
In the amount calculated in monetary terms equal to the amount of receipt of cash and other property and (or) the amount of receivables
In the amount of cash received
In the amount of receivables.
The organization does not plan to receive income from ordinary activities (in the reporting year and in future periods), there are no business contracts concluded as part of ordinary activities. In the debit of which account are the administrative expenses of the reporting year to be debited:
What income in accordance with PBU 9/99 are not recognized as income of the organization:
Income from the provision of a fee for the temporary use of assets
Advance payments, advances
Revenue from the sale of goods.
Income from ordinary activities include:
Proceeds from the sale of materials
Exchange differences
Asset revaluation amounts
Proceeds from the sale of products (goods).
Penalties for violation of the terms of business contracts are recorded in that reporting period when:
There was a violation of contractual obligations;
Amounts of penalties entered the bank account or cash desk of the organization;
When the amount of sanctions recognized by the debtor or awarded by the court to recovery.
Do small businesses have the right not to comply with the principle of assuming temporary certainty of facts of economic activity:
Dont Have;
They have, including in case of non-application of the simplified accounting system;
Only available if the cash method of accounting for income and expenses.
Suppose that there were no opening balances for sub-accounts (for example, in January). We get the balance sheet for the account for January:
Score/ subaccount |
Opening balance |
Revs |
Balance on the end |
|||
Debit |
Credit |
By debit |
On loan |
Debit |
Credit |
|
Total score 90 |
The Synthetic Sales account does not have a balance at the reporting date (end of the month).
Records on subaccounts of an account are made. cumulatively during a year. At the end of the reporting year, all sub-accounts opened to the “Sales” account (except sub-account 90.9 “Profit / loss from sales”) are closed by internal records in the sub-account 90.9 “Profit / loss from sales”. Those. at the end of the year, after the closure of account 90 in December, the entries are recorded: D 90.1 - K 90.9 - for the total amount of revenue received for the year for ordinary activities, D 90.9 - K 90.2 - for the value of all finished products (goods) sold for the year, D 90.9 - K 90.3 - for the entire amount of VAT calculated for the year on revenue for customers, etc.
At the end (and beginning) of the year, sub-accounts of account 90 and the synthetic account as a whole have no balances!
Accounting for other income and expenses (operating and non-operating) in the account is carried out similarly to the account in the account. Income and expenses are reflected in subaccounts 91.1 and 91.2 cumulatively during the year. The synthetic account is monthly “closed” by writing off profit (loss) from account 91.9 to the account and does not have a balance at the end of the month. At the end of the year, sub-accounts are also “closed”.
The organization’s profit (loss) accumulated in the account minus the accrued income tax (income tax accruals according to the declaration are reflected by posting D 99 - K 68 income tax) at the end of the year is debited to the retained earnings (uncovered loss.) This posting, marking the beginning of a new accounting year, and is called reformation balance.
Questionsfrom the tests. You need to select the correct answer from the proposed options.
The company invoiced the buyer for the shipped products. The accounting entries are recorded:
D 62 - K 91, D 91 - K 43, D 91 - K 68;
D 62 - K 90.1, D 90.1 - K 43, D 90.1 - K 68;
D 62 - K 90.1, D 90.2 - K 43, D 90.3 - K 68;
Under the exchange agreement, products were shipped and the received materials were capitalized. Accounting entries made:
D 10 - K 43 (40); D 19 - K 68;
D 10 - K 90.1, D 19 - K 68, D 90.2 - K 43 (40);
D 10 - K 60, D 19 - K 60, D 62 - K 90.1, D 90.2 - K 43 (40), D 90.3 - K 68, D 60 - K 62, D 68 - K 19.
9. Accounting and civil law. Treaties
The activity of any organization is a multitude of transactions with other organizations (legal entities) and just citizens (individuals) who are participants in a civil turnover. It is civil law that determines the legal status of participants in civil turnover, the grounds for the emergence and procedure for exercising property rights and other property rights, exclusive rights to the results of intellectual activity, and regulates contractual and other obligations (Clause 1, Article 2 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).
Since the organization’s balance sheet takes into account its own property, rights and obligations, the features of the transfer (occurrence) of property rights for different types of contracts, the procedure for the assignment (assignment) of rights, the occurrence and settlement of obligations are essential for accounting. Postings on settlement operations of the organization with its counterparties are a record of civil law in the accounting language.
The contract is called a bilateral or multilateral transaction (Article 154 of the Civil Code) . An agreement is considered concluded if its parties have reached an agreement on all material terms. Moreover, with material are:
Terms of the subject of the contract,
Conditions that are called in the law or other legal acts as essential or necessary for contracts of this type,
And also all those conditions regarding which, at the request of one of the parties, an agreement must be reached (Article 423 of the Civil Code).
An agreement may be concluded in any form, unless a certain form is established by law for agreements of this type. As a general rule of article 161 of the Civil Code, the following transactions must be completed in simple writing(with the exception of transactions requiring notarization):
Transactions of legal entities between themselves and with citizens;
Citizens ’transactions among themselves for an amount exceeding at least ten times the minimum wage established by law, and in cases provided by law, regardless of the amount of the transaction.
There may be exceptions to this general rule. For example, an oral form is acceptable for a retail sales contract. Such an agreement is considered to be concluded in proper form from the moment the seller gives the buyer a cash or receipt or document confirming payment of the goods (Article 493 of the Civil Code).
In the most general case, non-compliance with the written form of the transaction deprives the parties of the right in case of a dispute to invoke evidence in court. In some cases, non-compliance with a simple written transaction form can entail its invalidity. However, such a consequence should be explicitly specified in the law in relation to this type of transaction or be established by agreement of the parties. The Civil Code obliges to conclude in simple written form agreements for the sale of real estate (Article 550 of the Civil Code), rental of buildings and structures (Article 651 of the Civil Code), a bank deposit agreement (Article 836 of the Civil Code) and a loan agreement (Article 820 of the Civil Code), insurance contract ( st. 940 GK) and others.
The contract is concluded by sending the other side of the proposal (offer) to conclude a contract and accepting this proposal (acceptance of the offer) by the other party. In this case, according to the general rule of article 438 of the Civil Code, acceptance of a proposal (acceptance) also includes the commission by a person who has received an offer, actions to fulfill the conditions of the agreement specified in it (shipment of goods, provision of services, performance of work, payment of the corresponding amount, etc.).
A contract in writing may be concluded
By way one documentsigned by the parties as well
By way document exchange by means of postal, telegraphic, teletype, telephone, electronic or other communication, which makes it possible to establish reliably that a document is coming from a party under an agreement (Article 434 of the Civil Code)
Thus, the preparation of a document with the name "Agreement" is only one of the possible options for concluding a contract in writing. Receiving an invoice from the supplier by fax followed by payment of the invoice received is also a written contract.
The Civil Code (Article 421) enshrines the principle of freedom of contract. The parties have the right to conclude (or refrain from concluding) agreements both stipulated and not stipulated by law or other legal acts. The parties have every right to conclude mixed agreements containing elements various types (types) of contracts provided for by law or other legal acts. For some types of contracts, the principle of freedom of contract is limited by the requirement of Article 422 of the Civil Code that the reservation must comply with the rules binding on the parties established by law and other legal acts ( peremptory norms) effective at the time of its conclusion.
In all other cases, the terms of the contract are formulated at the discretion of the parties. At the same time, when the legislation stipulates the condition of the contract is regulated by the norm, which applies insofar as the agreement of the parties does not establish otherwise dispositive norm), the parties may by their agreement exclude its application or establish an agreement on the application of a different condition. In the absence of such an agreement, the condition of the contract is determined by the dispositive norm. If a certain condition of the contract is not defined by the parties or the dispositive norm, the relevant conditions are determined by the business customs applicable to the relations of the parties. Thus, in the performance of the contract should be based primarily on the conditions laid down in it. If some condition is absent in the contract, then the general rule enshrined in the legislation for this type of contract is applied. If there is no general rule, then the customs of business turnover (Article 5 of the Civil Code) are applied.
As an example of a dispositive norm, we mention paragraph 3 of Art. 423 Civil Code. So, as a general rule, a contract is assumed paidunless otherwise provided by law, other legal acts, content or substance of the contract.
From the foregoing, the following conclusions can be drawn. Firstly, when concluding contracts, it is imperative to monitor the existence of mandatory (essential) conditions for this contract. So, for example, in the contract of sale (delivery) with installment payment terms (Article 489 of the Civil Code), the essential conditions are the price of the goods, as well as the procedure, timing and amount of payment. The lease or loan must necessarily contain data that allows you to definitely establish the property to be transferred, etc. Secondly, it is necessary to remember that some contracts require state registration (for example, rental of buildings and structures for a period of more than a year, trust management of real estate, etc.). Thirdly, we recommend that when concluding contracts do not try to invent something yourself, but use the well-known standard forms of contracts of the desired type. Fourth, if you are offered to conclude a contract, you should carefully study the option proposed by the other party and find out all the ambiguities and confusing (possibly specially) formulations.
Also, you should know the terms of interpretation of the contract (Article 431 of the Civil Code). In interpreting the terms of the contract, the court takes into account the literal meaning of the words and expressions contained therein. The literal meaning of the terms of the contract in case of its ambiguity is established by comparison with other conditions and the meaning of the contract as a whole. If a literal reading does not allow to determine the content of the contract, the actual general will of the parties should be clarified taking into account the purpose of the contract. In this case, all relevant circumstances are taken into account, including negotiations and correspondence preceding the contract, practice established in the mutual relations of the parties, business customs, and subsequent behavior of the parties.
And finally, a brief look at the basic rules governing the transfer of ownership. As a general rule, Art. 223 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, the ownership of the acquirer of the thing under the contract arises from the moment of its transferunless otherwise provided by law or contract. Moreover, in accordance with Art. 224 GK, p the transfer is the delivery of the thing to the acquirer, as well as the handing over to the carrier for sending to the acquirer or handing over to the organization of communication for sending things to the acquirer alienated without a delivery obligation. A thing shall be considered delivered to the acquirer from the moment of its actual receipt in the possession of the acquirer or the person indicated by it. The transfer of a bill of lading or other document of title to it is equivalent to the transfer of a thing.
In cases where the alienation of property is subject to state registration, the right of ownership of the acquirer arises from the moment of such registration, unless otherwise provided by law. And under the exchange agreement, unless otherwise provided by law or the exchange agreement, the ownership of the exchanged goods passes to the parties acting as exchange buyers under the exchange agreement, simultaneously after fulfillment of obligations to transfer the respective goods by both parties (Article 570 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).
Questionsfrom the tests. You need to select the correct answer from the proposed options.
The loan agreement is concluded:
In oral form;
In writing;
In written (notarized) form.
What is recognized as a response to consent to conclude an agreement on other conditions than proposed in the offer?
Refusal of acceptance and at the same time a new offer;
Only refusal of acceptance;
Only a new offer.
What right does a party lose by not complying with a simple written form of a transaction?
The right to file a lawsuit in court;
The rights in the event of a dispute to invoke evidence of the transaction and its conditions on evidence;
The right to provide written and other evidence.
The essential conditions of the contract include the conditions:
Directly named in a law or other legal acts as essential for a given type of contract;
Which change and supplement the usual conditions and acquire legal force only if they are included in the text of the contract;
Established by dispositive norms, unless otherwise agreed by the parties;
The organization entered into an exchange agreement. The condition for the transfer of ownership of the goods is not contained in the contract. The organization shipped its goods first. Reflect this business transaction for the shipment of goods on the accounts of accounting:
D 90.2 - K 41;
D 45 - K 41.
10. Accounting and civil law. Examples
According to Article 454 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, under a sales contract, one party (seller) agrees to transfer the thing (goods) into the ownership of the other side (buyer), and the buyer agrees to accept this goods and pay a certain sum of money (price) for it. Moreover, in accordance with Clause 2, Article 458 of the Civil Code, In cases where the seller’s obligation to deliver the goods or transfer the goods to the place of location to the buyer does not follow from the sales contract, the seller’s obligation to transfer the goods to the buyer is considered fulfilled at the time the goods are delivered to the carrier or the organization of communication for delivery to the buyer. Simultaneously with the transfer, the risks associated with the loss or damage of the goods (Article 459 of the Civil Code) also pass to the buyer.
Thus, if the seller does not have the seller’s obligation to deliver the goods, postings on the sale of goods should be recorded by the date of transfer of the goods to the carrier (for example, the date of the bill of lading):
Accounting with the seller:
D 62 - K 90.1 - the goods (products) were sold at the price of the contract, the seller has arrears in paying for the goods (D 62).
D 90.2 - K 41 (43) - the cost of the sold goods (products) has been written off.
Customer accounting:
D 41 (10, 01 - depending on the assets received) - D 60 - received the goods;
Suppose that according to the contract, ownership of the shipped goods passes to the buyer only after full payment (Article 491 of the Civil Code). Until the moment of payment, the goods remain the property of the seller, so the shipment is not related to the sale of:
Accounting with the seller at the time of shipment:
D 45 "Goods shipped" - D 41 (43) - goods (products) shipped;
D 90.3 - K 68-VAT - VAT on sales has been calculated (since 2006, VAT has been calculated on the earliest of the following dates: either by the date of shipment or by the date of payment - item 1 of article 167 of the Tax Code).
After payment:
D 51 - K 62 - received payment for the goods
D 62 - K 90.1 - reflected the sale of goods (transfer of ownership)
D 90.2 - K 45 - written off the cost of goods sold
Buyer accountingat the time of shipment:
D 002 - goods are accepted for safekeeping at the price of the contract. An account is an off-balance sheet account of goods and materials accepted for safekeeping. According to paragraph 2 of Article 8 of Law 129-FZ, property owned by the organization is accounted for separately from the property of other legal entities held by this organization. For off-balance sheet postings, double entry is not applicable. The transaction is recorded in the amount of the value of the goods received;
After payment:
D 60 - K 51 - payment for the goods received is listed;
D 01 (10, 41 - depending on the assets received) - D 60 - goods accepted
D 19 - K 60 - the VAT shown by the seller in the invoice is reflected;
D 68-VAT - To 19 - the VAT on the received goods is set off.
Further, suppose that the goods are sold through an intermediary (commission agent). According to the commission agreement, one party (commission agent) undertakes, on behalf of the other party (commissioning party) for a fee, to make one or more transactions on its own behalf, but at the expense of the principal. At the same time, in a transaction made by a commission agent with a third party, it acquires rights and the commission agent becomes obligated, even if the principal was named in the transaction or entered into direct relations with the third party to execute the transaction (Article 990 of the Civil Code). The ownership right to goods shipped to the commission agent does not transfer to the commission agent (Article 996 of the Civil Code).
Accounting with the principal on date of shipment:
D 45 "Goods shipped" - D 41 (43) - goods (products) shipped; In this case, VAT is not charged because the goods have not yet been shipped to the buyer.
On the date of sale of the goods by the agent:
D 76.5 (commission agent) - To 90.1 - the agent sold goods (products) at the price of the contract;
D 90.2 - K 45 - written off the cost of goods sold (products).
D 90.3 - To 68-VAT - VAT on sales is accrued.
D 44 - K 76.5 - reflects the debt to the commission agent in the amount of remuneration;
D 19 - K 76.5 - VAT is allocated on the invoice of the commission agent
D 68-VAT - To 19 - the VAT on the services of a commission agent is set off;
Commissioner accountingon date of shipment:
D 004 - received goods for sale from the principal. An account is an off-balance account “Goods accepted for commission”. The transaction is recorded in the amount of the value of the goods;
On the date of sale of the goods:
K 004 - the goods transferred for sale are shipped;
D 62 - K 76.5 - reflects the receivables of the buyer and payables to the principal for the goods sold;
D 76.5 - K 90.1 - reflects the sale of services for the sale of goods;
D 90.3 - K 68-VAT - VAT is charged on the sale of services.
Questionsfrom the tests. You need to select the correct answer from the proposed options.
When sending goods to the commission agent, the principal compiles accounting records:
D 62 - K 90, D 90 - K 41, D 90 - K 68
D 45 - K 41, D 62 - K 90, D 90 - K 41, D 90 - K 68
11. Classification and accounting of operating costs in production
Cost price represents a cost estimate of the resources used in the production and sale of products (works, services),the amount of costs for its production and sale. The cost of production is determined in the process of its costing (calculation, assessment).
For the purposes of costing and analysis, various cost classifications are used.
In the order of accounting costs and their inclusion in the cost, distinguish direct and indirect costs. Direct costs are costs directly related to the production of a particular product, for example, expenses for materials (including fuel, energy for production equipment), salaries and social contributions of production workers, depreciation of production equipment used to produce this type of product . Indirect costs apply to all types of products and include, for example, expenses for heating, lighting, maintenance and repair, production management, and marketing of products.
Classification of costs for direct and indirect is necessary for the correct construction of the analytical accounting of expenses for the production of several items or for custom cost accounting. Direct costs form the production cost of each type of product. To form the full cost, indirect costs are distributed by type of product (order) by calculation using economically sound distribution methods.
With respect to production technology, costs can be classified into basic and overhead. The main costs are the costs of the process. Overhead costs include production maintenance and management costs.
According to the relationship with the volume of production and for the purpose of analysis, costs (expenses) are divided into constants and variables. Permanent (conditionally constant) expenses are expenses that are independent of the volume of output. And the total amount of variable costs is determined by the product of the volume of production by the value of unit costs for the production unit, i.e. linearly depends on the volume of output. This classification is used in the analysis.
To account for expenses, two groups of accounts are used - costing accounts and collection and distribution accounts.
Costing accountsare used to account for costs and calculating the cost of production in the reporting period. This group consists of accounts “Main production”, 23 “Auxiliary production”, 29 “Serving production and household”, 28 “Marriage in production”.
4) the amount of transport costs related to the balance of unsold goods is determined as the product of the average interest and the value of the balance of goods at the end of the month.
The resulting current account balance at the end of the month is reflected in the balance sheet on page 213 "Work in progress".
Questionsfrom the tests. You need to select the correct answer from the proposed options.
Trade organizations take into account the costs of the procurement and delivery of goods to central warehouses as part of the costs of the sale:
Without fail;
When reflecting this option in the accounting policy;
Such costs are necessarily included in the actual cost of goods purchased.
13. Standard wiring. Cash turnover
Visually, the turnover of accounting accounts can be represented in the form of the following simple scheme:
This diagram shows the usual common typical wiring. The arrow indicates the debit of the account. Those. Settlements with suppliers are reflected in the following postings:
D 10 - K 60 - received materials from the supplier (raw materials, inventory), there was a debt to the supplier. The cost of materials received is indicated according to primary documents (invoices) without value added tax (VAT). If the purchased materials will be used for activities that are tax-free, the cost of the materials received is reflected with VAT.
D 20 - K 60 - received from the supplier of work and services of a production nature. Evaluation of works (services) is based on contracts and acts of acceptance of works, services.
D 26 - K 60 - received from the supplier of general business work and services.
D 41 - K 60 - received goods from the supplier (material assets for subsequent resale).
D 44 - K 60 - received from the supplier of work and services related to the sale of goods.
Etc. Settlements with customers are discussed above. Postings D 90.3 - K 68-VAT - VAT on sales is accrued, D 68-VAT - K 51 - transferred to the VAT budget upon declaration.
Questionsfrom the tests. You need to select the correct answer from the proposed options.
The final turnover of December deducted the amount of loss for the reporting year. Reflected the operation on the accounts of accounting:
D 84 - K 91;
D 84 - K 99:
D 99 - K 84.
14. Reporting. Balance
The balance sheet is one of the forms of accounting (financial) statements. The balance is a table made up of two parts - the left (asset) and the right (liability). The asset of the balance sheet shows the property of the organization used in the production process, in the liability shows the sources of formation of this property. The total of the asset is equal to the total of liability. The magnitude of this total is called balance sheet currency.
To make up the balance, you need to transfer to the table the balances (balances) on the accounts from the balance sheet. The balances are transferred according to certain rules, therefore, in the theory of accounting refers to the "balance sheet generalization."
Balance generalization involves:
The dual nature of the reflection of objects - both from the point of view of the composition of the property, and from the point of view of the sources of its origin;
The synthetic, generalized nature of the presentation of information as an integrated system of generalized data;
The "dual nature of the reflection of objects" as a direct consequence of double recording has been repeatedly mentioned above. And the “synthetic and generalized" nature of the presentation of information is achieved by a certain grouping of indicators in the table and the rules for transferring account balances from the balance sheet to the balance sheet.
Each element of an asset and liability is called an article. Articles are grouped by economic content into sections. The main feature of the grouping of articles is the maturity of assets (repayment of obligations). According to paragraph 19 of PBU 4/99 “Accounting statements of the organization”, in the balance sheet, assets and liabilities must be presented with the unit depending on the term of circulation (repayment) for short-term and long-term. Assets and liabilities are presented as short-term if the maturity (repayment) period for them is no more than 12 months after the reporting date or the duration of the operating cycle if it exceeds 12 months. All other assets and liabilities are presented as non-current.
Assets in the balance sheet are arranged according to their degree liquidity in order of increasing liquidity, and liabilities in the liability are grouped by maturity and are arranged in descending order of maturity.
The liquidity of an asset is the reciprocal of the time it takes to turn them into cash. Depending on the degree of liquidity, assets are divided into 4 groups:
A4 - hard-to-sell assets (non-current assets — fixed assets, intangible assets, long-term financial investments, etc.);
A3 - slow-moving assets (stocks, VAT on acquired values, long-term receivables and other current assets);
A2 - quickly sold assets (short-term receivables);
A1 - the most liquid assets (short-term financial investments and cash);
Therefore, the top of the balance sheet asset is section 1 “Non-current assets”, and behind it section 2 “current assets”. Section 2 of the article is as follows: Inventories - VAT on acquired values \u200b\u200b- Short-term receivables - Short-term financial investments - Cash - Other current assets. Thus, the general arrangement of assets in increasing liquidity is violated by the article “Other current assets” due to some uncertainty of its contents.
In turn, liabilities are divided into 4 groups according to the degree of urgency of payment (repayment):
P4 - permanent (stable) liabilities (capital, including retained earnings and reserves) - these are own sources, it is not necessary to return from. Permanent liabilities are grouped at the top of the balance sheet liability in section III, “Capital and reserves”;
P3 - long-term liabilities (with a maturity of more than 12 months) - are mainly located in section IV "Long-term liabilities". For the purposes of analysis, long-term liabilities also include deferred income and reserves for future expenses, which are nevertheless located in section V of the balance sheet;
The balance is drawn up for a certain reporting date. In accordance with paragraph 48 PBU 4/99, the organization must prepare interim financial statements for month, quartercumulative total from the beginning of the reporting year, unless otherwise provided by the legislation of the Russian Federation. Nevertheless, usually reporting (including the balance sheet) is drawn up at the end of the quarter.
Questionsfrom the tests. You need to select the correct answer from the proposed options.
Does depreciation on production fixed assets in operation change the balance sheet?
Does not change
Changes
Depends on the depreciation method;
Which of the following articles of liabilities are permanent?
Equity and equivalent funds;
Settlements with creditors;
Long-term loans and borrowings;
What balance sheet items characterize the value of the property of the organization?
Non-current assets + current assets;
Fixed assets;
Fixed assets + intangible assets.
15. The balance. Simple examples
Example 1 The organization has just been formed. At the time of registration of the organization, transaction D 75 - K 80 - 10,000 rubles was recorded. The authorized capital is paid in the amount of 50% by the founder's contribution of cash to the current account: D 51 - K 75 - 5000 rubles. The founders are obliged to pay the second half of the charter capital within a year from the moment of registration.
The balance of such a newly formed organization is:
Example 2 Suppose that the authorized capital of the organization was paid in full by non-monetary means by transferring a new computer estimated by the founders at 10,000 rubles. In general, a computer has more than 12 months., I.e. it must be classified as a fixed asset. However, since 2006, according to paragraph 5 of PBU 6/01 "Accounting for fixed assets", fixed assets worth within the limit established in the accounting policy of the organization, but not more than 20,000 rubles per unit, can be reflected in accounting and financial statements in the composition of inventories (MPZ). The entries recorded are: D 75 - K 80 - 10,000 rubles., D 10 - K 75 - 10,000 rubles. The cost of inventories is charged to the expense accounts at the time of their transfer to production. Suppose that the organization is engaged in trade, the transferred computer is used for managerial purposes, and during the period from the moment of registration to the reporting date, the organization entered into agreements with counterparties, i.e. led production activities. The entries recorded are: D 44 - K 10 - 10,000 rubles., D 90.2 - K 44 - 10,000 rubles., D 99 - K 90.9 - 10,000 rubles. (synthetic score 90
In this case, the balance sheet currency is zero.
Questionsfrom the tests. You need to select the correct answer from the proposed options.
The balance sheet should include numerical indicators in:
Gross estimate;
Net valuation
Settlements with debtors and creditors are reflected in the financial statements of the organization:
In the amounts arising from accounting records and recognized by her as correct;
In the amounts indicated in the latest reconciliation acts with debtors and creditors;
In the amounts adjusted for the Central Bank refinancing rate at the date of the financial statements.
16. Internal control and reporting.
In the audit process, the auditor should assess the level of internal control in the auditee. In a broad sense, internal control is a set of measures that an organization takes in order to minimize both the possibility of fraud or abuse of power, as well as the possibility of conducting transactions that violate the law, as well as the appearance of erroneous records, calculations, charging taxes, etc. .
Internal control primarily involves the construction of an appropriate organizational structure, separation of powers, a ban on one person combining the functions of disposal and accounting, accounting and direct access to material values, etc. Internal control is the main function of the chief accountant as the head of the accounting department.
In small enterprises, the entire accounting process is carried out directly by the chief accountant. In these conditions, the separation of powers and responsibility is impossible and the accountant needs to constantly monitor the results of his work.
What steps should be taken before preparing the financial statements so as not to find out after a while that the statements were submitted with errors?
1. It is necessary to check the status of settlements for each counterparty (on accounts 60,,, as well as the presence or absence of an account balance). A typical mistake - for the same counterparty, both receivables and payables under the same contract (delivery, order) are reflected.
For example, the buyer transferred an advance, which was reflected on the loan 60.1. Then they sold the products and reflected the debts owed to account 62.1. A posting to write off an advance to pay off debt: D 60.2 - K 62.1 not recorded.
The source of errors is often incorrect analytical accounting. It may happen that the payment is erroneously reflected under the wrong agreement (order, invoice). As a result, with fully completed settlements in the accounting under one agreement, unreasonable accounts payable, according to another in the same amount, accounts receivable.
Another possibility for the appearance of unreasonable indicators in the calculations is the untimely reflection of expenses. For example, a bank charges a collection fee. Payment of the commission is reflected in the accounting, but not written off to the corresponding expense account.
All of the above leads to unlawful "inflating" of the amounts of payables and receivables and to false reporting.
2. Check the validity of the account balance for each supplier. Unless some special cases are excluded, account balances may be due either to late debiting or to the absence of a vendor invoice.
3. Check and verify the completeness of reflection in the accounting of operations for the sale of goods, works, services. In addition, if the sale is subject to VAT, it is possible to calculate the amount of accrued VAT for each tax period at the estimated rate (18/118 or 10/110) of the turnover on the loan of account 90.1 and compare the amount received with the tax for the corresponding period on the debit of account 90.3 . If in some tax period these amounts do not coincide, it means either the sale is incorrectly reflected or the VAT is incorrectly calculated. Since page 010 of Form 2 “Profit and Loss Statement" reflects net revenue (ie, revenue from sales excluding VAT and excise duties equal to the difference in turnover according to account 90.1 and account turnover 90.3), then any error in calculating VAT leads to errors when filling out form 2.
4. Check and verify the completeness and correctness of the reflection of current expenses. Check payroll, UST, depreciation and write-off of deferred expenses (account 97), if there are reflected, for example, expenses on property insurance, etc. It is necessary to check the validity of material balances on the account and the timeliness of their writing off to production.
It is very important to verify the correctness of the analytical accounting of expenses, including operating and non-operating. You can control analytics if you print the balance sheet (account analysis) on expense accounts (20, 26, 91.2). Reflection of expenses without analytics can lead to incorrect filling out of form 2.
5. Fill out the property tax return and record the accruals (for example, account 91.2 or). It’s very disappointing to redo all the reports only because I forgot to charge this tax.
6. Check the write-off of expenses to sales accounts and the validity of the cost of work in progress (account 20) or the distribution of transport costs to the rest of the goods (account 44). Monitor monthly closing of accounts and synthetic accounts and.
7. If the statements are filled in in the accounting program, then after loading the form, it is necessary to clear all the fields and only then fill out the form. After drawing up the balance sheet, you need to make sure that the results of the asset and liability really coincide and that the balance sheet figures are for the current, not for the previous period and correspond to the data of the balance sheet. You must also make sure that the pre-tax profit figure in Form 2 matches the credit turnover on the Profit and Loss account.
Questionfrom the tests. You need to select the correct answer from the proposed options.
The date of presentation of financial statements for organizations is:
The day of its approval in the manner prescribed by the constituent documents;
Day of submission for approval;
The date of its mailing or the date of the actual transfer of ownership to the designated address.
The financial statements of an organization that includes separate divisions:
It should include indicators of all separate divisions;
It should include indicators of only divisions not allocated to a separate balance sheet;
It should not include performance indicators of units.
Afterword
All rights to the text (with the exception of questions) belong to the author. Reprint or publication is possible only with the consent of the author. Comments and suggestions on the content will be gratefully accepted.
Yaroslav Kulibaba
OOO "REAL-AUDIT" (Moscow)
· Understandability.
· Relevance
· Reliability
· Comparability
· - of a separate organization
What meters are used in accounting to reflect the property of the organization?
· Natural and monetary.
· Accounting meters - in-kind, labor, cash
8. The main stages of accounting are:
· Formation of primary information, classification and generalization of information received on accounts in the accounting registers, the formation of reporting indicators, analysis and adoption of economic decisions.
What are the types of accounting.
· Management accounting (operational)
· Financial accounting (accounting)
· Tax accounting (statistical)
The main purpose of accounting.
· Is to provide accounting information to internal (own) and external (third-party) users.
To which group of assets does the 1C: Accounting software package belong?
· Intangible assets.
12. The capital of the organization consists of the following:
· Capital \u003d Assets - Liabilities
· Authorized capital, additional paid-in capital, reserve capital, special purpose funds, retained earnings
13. The accounting method includes the following methods and techniques for organizing accounting:
· Documentation and inventory
· - accounts and double entry
· - balance sheet and reporting
· - valuation and costing
The method of grouping economic property by economic content in a monetary value at a certain date is this.
· Balance sheet
What is the composition of sources of financing of household funds?
· Capital and reserves, long-term and short-term liabilities.
· Consist of own and borrowed funds.
Attracted capital is this.
· Short-term, long-term bank loans, short-term and long-term loans, liabilities payable.
The accounting policy of the organization is this.
The set of specific methods and forms of accounting, announced by the company, based on generally accepted rules and characteristics of its activities.
What is the distinguishing feature of the balance sheet?
· Equal results of assets and liabilities of the balance sheet for a certain date.
What is an inventory?
· Methods of monitoring (accounting and control) of household assets, sources and processes. A method for verifying the conformity of the actual availability of company property and reconciling them with accounting data for a specific date.
In which section of the balance sheet is retained earnings (uncovered loss)?
21. What is the name of the capital that characterizes the debt of the founders (participants) in contributions to the authorized capital?
22. The accounting policy is:
· An internal document approved by the organization’s management.
23. The assets that do not have a physical form, but bring the company additional income for a long time, include:
When is an inventory not necessary?
What are the stages of the business process.
· Security (supply), production, sale (marketing).
What is the purpose of preparing a balance sheet?
· Summarizing the financial and economic activities of existing business entities on a specific date.
Which article relates to the “current liability”?
· Short-term financial liabilities
· Short-term bank loans
· accounts payable
· Accrued liabilities
What is a “Balance Currency"?
· The total amount of the ASSET and LIABILITY balance, necessarily equal to each other, that is, TOTAL ASSET \u003d TOTAL LIABILITY
What is the name of the capital formed as a result of deductions from net income to cover losses of previous years, and dividends if current profit is not enough for this?
Received funds for the performance of work - How did this operation affect the change in balance sheet items?
· If money came from outside, then assets grow along with liabilities and the balance is maintained.
Wage obligation fulfilled - how did this operation affect the change in balance sheet items?
32. The main principle of financial reporting:
· Accrual basis
What are the grounds for recording business transactions on the accounts.
· Accounting documents.
Which of the following accounts is active?
When are receivables recognized?
· When the related income is recognized.
36. Elements of financial statements:
Balance;
Report about incomes and material losses;
Report on changes in equity;
Cash flow statement;
Notes consisting of a brief overview of the basic principles of accounting policies and other notes to the reporting.
37. The principle by which income should be recognized when it is earned and expenses when it is incurred is called:
· Accrual basis
To which section of the balance does the “License Agreement” refer?
· Long-term assets
What method is used in accounting to control the presence, movement of assets, capital and liabilities in an enterprise?
40. To borrowed capital includes:
· Long-term and short-term loans and borrowings, loans, sources of funds in the calculations (payables)
41. Accounting is an ordered system:
· It is an ordered system for collecting, registering and summarizing information in monetary terms about property, liabilities of the organization and their movement through continuous, continuous and documentary accounting of all business operations.
· - continuous, continuous and documentary reflection of the facts of economic activity
What are the obligations of the company?
43. The property of the organization includes:
· Non-current assets, current assets, Organization property (A) \u003d investments of owners (K) + investments of creditors (O)
Which article relates to long-term assets?
45. The following types of metering instruments are available:
· Natural meters
· Labor meters
· Money meter
46. \u200b\u200bThe accounting policy is:
· An internal document approved by the organization’s management.
What is the main hallmark of all assets?
· Material material form
Which article relates to a Long-term Asset?
What is the name of the debt of legal entities and individuals to the company for goods sold (services, work)?
To which section of the balance does the article “Work in progress” refer to?
What section of the balance sheet may have a negative value for the article?
· Current assets 1 section
52. Assets are:
· Articles reflecting the property of the organization in composition and placement
53. The first stage of processing accounting information is:
· Primary accounting represents the initial stage of the systematic perception of the registration of individual operations characterizing business processes and phenomena occurring in the organization ( documentation)
Which balance sheet item is passive?
According to the accrual basis, income is recognized in accounting when it is earned, i.e.?
What is an asset?
· (From the Latin actus - action, movement) - the left side of the Balance sheet, which reflects the value of the property of the enterprise, its resources, both tangible and intangible.
One of the qualitative characteristics of financial statements?
· Understandability.
· Relevance
· Reliability
· Comparability
3. The liquidity of funds is ensured by the fact that:
· The funds of the company represent the most liquid assets. Liquidity is ensured by the fact that they are able to fulfill obligations of any kind,
4. Accounting is carried out within the framework of:
· - of a separate organization
5. Accounting is an ordered system:
· It is an ordered system for collecting, registering and summarizing information in monetary terms about property, liabilities of the organization and their movement through continuous, continuous and documentary accounting of all business operations.
· - continuous, continuous and documentary reflection of the facts of economic activity
6. The property of the organization includes:
· Property of the organization (A) \u003d investments of owners (K) + investments of creditors (O)
· - non-current assets, current assets,