Economic schools and their teachings. School of Economic Theory
Ad valorem - 3
Specific - 2
Combined - 4
Alternative - 1
Definition:
Applied by decision of the customs authorities
The rate of customs benefit is removed from a unit of weight, volume, length.
The duty charged as a percentage of the customs value of the goods.
At the same time ad valorem and specific rates are charged.
Positive economy deals:
Identification of substantial processes and phenomena.
Finding ways out of the crisis
Using economic laws to solve economic problems
Identification of available resources.
Right of use
Right of disposal
Ownership right
Right to prohibit harmful use
Board of Directors - iii;
State - iv
Shareholder - ii
General meeting of shareholders - i
Analysis - thinking aimed at identifying special properties and phenomena for the conclusion of special properties and phenomena.
Induction - a method of inference based on the distribution of thorium to generalize facts
Synthesis - thinking, which is focused on identifying the common that connects individual phenomena.
Deduction - a method of transition from general to particular
Research on the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples - (iifrom the authors).
The general theory of interest and money employment - (iv from the authors).
Friedman Milton
Marshall Alfred
Smith Adam
Keynes John Maynod
The doctrine of mercantilists in Russia is shared by:
Mardvinov
Pososhkov
Ordin-Nashchekin
The theory of social and market economy - (iii from the authors).
Neoclassical synthesis - (from ators).
Samoelson
Classical School - 3 .
Mercantilism - 1 .
Marxism - 4 .
Physiocracy - 2 .
Political English Economy - (from distributors / authors)
Institutionalism - (iii of distributors / authors)
Riccardo
Plekhanov
Byon Bawerk
Luxury item
Essentials
Replacement Product
To establish the correspondence between the rights of owners and subjects of OJSC:
Subjects:
To each of the definitions give the corresponding concept:
Set between the names of works and their authors.
To establish correspondence between theories and surnames of the authors of these theories:
Establish a chronological order of the emergence of economic schools:
To establish correspondence between theories and distributors / authors
Consumer incomes grew from 6,000 to 15,000. At the same time, demand for product X grew from 50,000 to 100,000. This allows us to characterize product X as :
The calculation of the coefficient of elasticity:
Example for calculating elasticity:
E- ELLASTICITY |
|||
The highest product will be with a coefficient of elasticity of 1.
A more complex example of pacregarding elasticity:
Find the coefficient of elasticity of demand (comes with a minus).
Costs.
Table:
When you need to hire workers so that the amount of output per worker is optimal.
∆TVC / ∆Q
MC - marginal cost (in the form of a horizontal line)
Which expression represents marginal cost?
Produced 500 units. AVC average variable costs are equal to 2. Average AFC fixed costs are 0.5. What are the total costs. 2 * 500 + 0.5 * 500 \u003d 1250.
The volume of the company's output per week is 30 pieces. Costs are: raw materials 200 cu, rent of premises - 100 cu, workers' salaries - 900, depreciation - 100 (designate A). Manager's salary - 500. What are the average total costs? (200 + 100 + 900 + 100 + 500) / 30 \u003d 60.
The total costs are represented by the function: TC \u003d 0.1 * Q ^ 3-4 * Q ^ 2 + 50 * Q + 100. Find the function of the average variable costs f (AVC) \u003d VC / Q \u003d (TC-FC) / Q. Here FC \u003d 100 (constant function TC). Then f (AVC) \u003d 0.1 * Q ^ 2-4 * Q + 50.
Which of these curves does not take a U-shape ???
1. Kuznetsova L.I., Gelfand S.Yu., Popov I.G. and other Nutritional value of canned products in tubes for feeding pilots and astronauts / Cosmic. biol. and aerospace. honey. - 1985
2. The first manned space flights / Ed. M.N. Sisakyan, V.I. Yazdovsky. - M.: Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1963 - S. 37-39.
3. Popov I.G. Nutrition and water supply / Fundamentals of space biology and medicine: Joint Soviet-American publication. - M .: Nauka, 1974 - S. 35-70.
4. Popov I.G. Some results of the study of astronaut nutrition in flight / Mater. XVI scientific Sessions of the Institute of Nutrition. USSR Academy of Medical Sciences / Ed. A.L. Pokrovsky. - M.: Medicine, 1969 - S. 138-140.
Main economic schools and their characteristics
Mercantilism
The essence of the teachings of mercantilists comes down to determining the source of the origin of wealth. Mercantilists identified wealth with money. They believed that the more money in the state, the better developed the economy.
Distinguish between early and late mercantilism.
The basis of early mercantilism is an increase in monetary wealth by legislative means. The Englishman W. Stafford believed that the solution to many economic problems is based on the prohibition of the call of precious metals, the restriction of imports, and the promotion of economic activity.
During late mercantilism, it was believed that more was needed to be sold than to be bought.
Close to mercantilism is the economic policy of protectionism, aimed at protecting the national economy from competition from other states by introducing customs barriers.
The most famous representatives of mercantilism:
Thomas Men (1571-1641)
Antoine de Montcretien (1575-1621)
Montchretien coined the term political economy.
With the publication of his book A Treatise on Political Economy (1615), economic theory has been developing for over 300 years and is still developing as a political economy.
The appearance of this terimine is due to the increasing role of the state in the initial accumulation of capital and foreign trade.
Physiocrats
A new direction in the development of political economy is represented by the physiocrats, who expressed the interests of large landowners.
Physiocrats studied the influence of natural phenomena on the economy of society. They believed that the source of wealth is labor only in agriculture.
The main representatives of the school were:
Francois Quesnay (1694-1774)
Anne Robert Turgot (1727-1781)
Classical School of Political Economics
Economic science was further developed in the writings of Adam Smith (1723-1790) and David Ricardo (1772-1823).
Adam Smith became the founder of classical political economy.
The main idea in the teachings of Adam Smith is the idea of \u200b\u200bliberalism, minimal government intervention in the economy, market self-regulation based on free prices.
Smith laid the foundations of the labor theory of value, showed the importance of the division of labor as a condition for increasing productivity. His studies have become a bible for Western economists.
David Ricardo continued the theory of A. Smith a little finalized it. He argued that the value and price of goods depends on the amount of labor expended on its manufacture; Profit is the result of the unpaid labor of the worker. His teachings formed the basis of utopian socialism.
Economic School of Utopian and Scientific Communism
Based on the highest achievements of the classical school of political economy, Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) created a theoretical concept that received the generalized name of Marxism.
Marxism or the theory of scientific socialism (communism) is represented by the formation of socialist principles: public ownership of the means of production, lack of exploitation of human labor, equal pay for equal work, universal and full employment.
K. Marx is associated with the attempt of people to build a society without private property, a state-type economy regulated from the center.
Marxist ideas were deeply accepted in Russia by Narodnik Mikhail Bakunin, theorist-economist and philosopher Georgy Plekhanov, professional revolutionary and founder of the Soviet state Vladimir Ilyich Lenin.
The main idea of \u200b\u200bthe economic school of utopian and scientific communism: In the process of labor, a person alienates the results of his labor, as a result of which the stamina characteristic decreases sharply.
Marginalism
In the second half of the XIX century. The theory of marginalism was formulated, which arose as a reaction to the economic doctrine of K. Marx, his critical reflection. It is marginalism that underlies the modern neoclassical trend of economic thought.
Representatives of marginalism (the school of ultimate analysis) are:
Karl Menger
Friedrich Wieser
Leon Valras
Eigen-Bem-Bawerk
William Stanley Jevons
The main idea is the use of extreme extreme values \u200b\u200bor states that characterize not the essence of phenomena, but their change in connection with a change in other phenomena. The cost of any good or product depends on its marginal utility to the consumer.
For example: marginal utility theory explores the pricing aspect in relation to the efficiency of consumption of products and shows how customer satisfaction will change when adding a unit of the estimated product in contrast to the cost concept.
Neoclassical school
It arises on the basis of a synthesis of the ideas of David Ricard and Marzhenalism.
Representatives of the neoclassical school:
Alfred Marshall
Arthur Pigun
The economic economy is considered by representatives of this direction as a set of microeconomic agents who want to get maximum utility at minimum cost.
Keynesianism
The Keynesian line of economic theory, founded by John Keynes (1883-1946), is the most important theoretical justification for state regulation of a developed market economy by increasing or decreasing demand by changing cash and non-cash money supply. With the help of such regulation, it is possible to influence inflation and employment, eliminate the unevenness of demand and supply of goods, and suppress economic crises. The effect of economic demand on investment flow and on the formation of national income was studied.
J. Keynes was declared the "savior of capitalism", and his theory was proclaimed "Keynesian revolution in political economy." At the same time, Keynes borrowed a number of theoretical principles from the arsenal of classical political economy by A. Smith and D. Ridardo, as well as from the economic theory of Marxism.
The main problem, according to Keynes, is market capacity, the principle of demand efficiency, an integral part of which is the concept of the multiplier, the general theory of employment and marginal efficiency of capital.
School of Economics Institutionalism
The study of all economic phenomena from political methodological and legal issues.
It is characterized by a departure from the absolutization of technical factors, great attention to the person, social problems.
The main idea of \u200b\u200bmodern institutionalism is to assert not only the growing role of man as the main economic resources of post-industrial society, but also in the argumentation of the conclusion about the general reorientation of the post-industrial system towards the comprehensive development of the personality, and the 21st century proclaimed a century of man.
Representatives of the school of institutionalism:
J. Commons
W. Mitchell
J. Galbraith
School of Neoconservatism (School of Monetarism)
Main principle: The economy is capable of self-regulation and the main task of the state is the regulation of cash flows
The founder of the school of neoconservatism is Milton Friedman.
In his opinion, microeconomics studies large-scale economic phenomena, as well as those economic choices made by small economic units, such as household care, firms and economic markets.
The subject and methods of economic theory.
The modern definition of the subject of economic science proceeds from limited resources and the satisfaction of human needs on this basis. The essence of this definition is that the subject of economic theory is the study of human behavior in conditions of limited means to achieve the goals in the field of economic activity. This is the science of how people choose how to use scarce resources to produce a variety of products and distribute them wisely.
The original is the definition of the subject of economic theory, according to which it is a collection of knowledge that answers the questions: “What? How? For whom to produce? ”. This definition combines the notion of rarity of resources with the problem of the choice that people should make in search of the most efficient production option. Rational economic behavior of people is associated with minimizing costs and maximizing benefits.
Microeconomics and macroeconomics have their subjects of study. These concepts from the point of view of the object of study are conventionally designated sections of economic theory. The subject of microeconomics is a study of the behavior of a firm, a household in a market economy with their right to make economic decisions, study the impact of the state on firms, and also analyze the interests of individuals and the situation in private markets. Macroeconomics explores the national economy as a whole, including economic relations between industries and sectors of the economy. It analyzes national income, the dynamics of expenditures and prices, unemployment and employment, etc.
Economic law is a strong, stable, substantial, necessary, constantly repeating connection, the interdependence of phenomena and processes of economic life. Economic laws arise and operate only in human society. They are manifested through the activities of people at different stages of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods.
Economic laws express the quantitative and qualitative aspects of economic phenomena and are used to measure them. They differ in their internal content, in terms and scope.
Economic laws are objective, interconnected and comprehensively express the essence of the phenomenon in development. Some economic laws apply in all economic systems, others only in some. Thus, the law of increasing labor productivity is valid in all methods of production, and the law of value begins to operate when the slave-owning mode of production is born. The uncontrolled effect of economic laws can adversely affect the development of the social system as a whole.
One of the methods of economic theory is the logical method of studying economic processes, i.e. the study of thought from the side of its structure and form. Using this method, common signs and differences for economic systems are revealed, a logical transition from simple to complex is carried out.
So, in order to reduce the effect of elemental forces in the economy or to reduce their destructive consequences, people strive to learn the logic of economic development both on the scale of micro- and macroeconomics.
The method of scientific abstraction consists in the liberation of the object under study from random, temporary and the search for permanent, characteristic features, in the process of learning from an insignificant aspect of the economic phenomenon. The result of scientific abstraction are the concepts and categories of science. Cognition begins with the study of a specific empirical material and on the basis of general concepts its diversity is explained. This is the path of ascent from abstract concrete. This method is applied when there is no possibility for economic experimentation.
The historical method in economic theory involves the study of economic processes and phenomena in time, that is, in the process of their occurrence, development and death. This approach allows us to represent all the features of any economic system, production method, but complicates the analysis of the abundance of descriptive material.
The dialectical method of research makes it possible to identify internal contradictions in the economy as the driving force of its development. Human systems did not yet know the economic systems and farming methods free of contradictions. With the help of the dialectical method, the ways of resolving contradictions and the ways of overcoming them are determined. The severity of these contradictions makes it possible to find out when the economic system is progressing in its development, and when social progress is hindering.
Economic theory uses various tools of scientific knowledge, which include analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, comparison, analogy, hypothesis, proof.
Economic systems are a complex set of various components, for a comprehensive study of which you must first study these components, that is, to divide the phenomenon into parts - to carry out the analysis. Then it is necessary to create a holistic picture of the economic system, for which its synthesis is carried out - the combination of parts of the subject. Analysis and synthesis are done mentally and are directly related to the logical method of economic research.
Comparison allows you to determine the similarity or difference of economic processes and phenomena. It uses economic and mathematical modeling, which in a formalized form makes it possible to predict economic phenomena, determine their causes, patterns and consequences. Of greatest importance in economic science is micro-imacromodeling.
In economic research, an analogy is often used, that is, the transfer of one or a number of properties from an already known economic phenomenon to an unknown.
The use of a hypothesis is also practiced, which is a scientifically based assumption about the causes or relationships of phenomena and processes in the economy.
It justifies the truth of one thought with the help of another and such an instrument of scientific knowledge in economics as a proof.
The process of updating the methods and tools of scientific knowledge of the economy knows no limit.
The definition of the functions of economic science is connected with its subject and involves the use of it to solve not only theoretical, but also practical problems.
Economic theory, first of all, serves the knowledge and study of the economic foundations of human society, the study of the criteria for the functioning of its economic, production base. In this regard, the cognitive function of economic theory is of great importance. Knowledge of the economy is an integral element of a high level of education, a condition for an effective economic policy. The essence of the cognitive function is to study the laws of development of the economic system, to analyze its internal structure, connections and interactions, to identify trends in economic development. Illiterate handling of the economy is fraught with undesirable consequences for society, since civilized economic forms are designed for economically trained people. The cognitive function involves a deep study of economic phenomena, with particular attention being paid to internal processes inaccessible to surface observation.
The practical (pragmatic) function of economic science is to implement the recommendations of economists in the field of practice, in applying them to production. In turn, economic practice is a source of scientific conclusions and conclusions. In practice, an economic policy is directly implemented, production management is carried out, methods and methods of rational farming are developed and tested. Since its inception, economic science expresses the needs of economic development and develops recommendations for entrepreneurs and the state. The implementation of economic reform in Russia is due in part to the ability to use the results of world economic practice.
The methodological function is the determination, using general economic science, of the fundamental, theoretical foundations of the complex of all other economic sciences. Among them, sectoral (economics of industry, agriculture, education, etc.), functional (economics of labor, finance, etc.), as well as economic disciplines at the junction of different branches of knowledge (economic geography, demography, etc.) are distinguished. Economic science is a methodological basis for the emergence, for example, of the economics of ecology, for management and marketing. It offers tools, scientific tools for the existence of scientific research.
In modern conditions, the role of the prognostic function of economic science is growing. Economic theory provides the scientific basis for making forecasts, determining the prospects for economic development. This function involves the development of general criteria and indicators for the development of the economic system as a whole. In the world community, economics has been performing a prognostic function since about the middle of the 20th century.
Some economists highlight the critical function of economics. Its essence lies in the fact that not only the achievements and shortcomings of various economic systems are identified, but also outdated factors and elements that inhibit their development are determined (for example, economic ties in slavery and feudalism systems). This function involves distinguishing between progressive and regressive economic structures.
Regulation is an action, an activity aimed at obtaining a predetermined result, programmed indicators. There are different approaches to the definition of the regulatory problem as the fundamental problem of economic theory, which are similar conceptually, but differ in some nuances.
The regulatory process is characterized by complexity, as evidenced by the multiplicity of economic terminology denoting this problem: economic regulation, market regulation, state regulation, social regulation, regulation of economic relations and so on. Based on this, we can distinguish certain objects of economic regulation: the economy, the market, economic relations, wages, taxes, money circulation and so on. Targeted impact on the object is the main task of economic regulation.
The subjects of economic regulation are those who represent, express and realize economic interests. State regulation aims to respect the interests of the state, society as a whole, and socially unprotected sections of the population.
The purpose of economic regulation is to adapt a functioning economic system to constantly changing living conditions. Economic regulation can, by a number of signs, reveal the weakness of the economic mechanism in the face of a long-term perspective and thereby reveal its strategic insolvency. The development of ways and methods of regulation is a fundamental problem, since the economic mechanism in a market economy is subject to a certain order, rules, and the interaction of various parts of this mechanism necessary for the economy is established.
The concept of production and its importance in society. Concept and types of resources
Production can also be viewed on a broader plane - as social production, in which material plays a leading, decisive role. The concept of "social production" captures the fact that people produce not only things and material wealth, but also their sociality: social relations, social institutions, spiritual values.
Method of production - represents the unity of two parties - productive forces and production relations, expressing two series of relations of people: relations to nature and to each other.
The historical stages of the development of production are reflected in the concepts of primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist and socialist systems of society.
General and necessary components of the labor process are the subject of labor, the means of labor and labor itself, which constitute productive forces in their unity. The subject of labor is all that a person makes his efforts to. The subject of labor is a passive element of production. It undergoes various changes and is converted into a product that is needed for a person.
The second element of the productive forces is the means of labor, i.e. a thing or a complex of things that a person places between himself and the subject of labor and which serve as a conductor of his effects on this subject. The subject of labor and the means of labor taken together comprise the means of production. Thus, the productive forces are the means of production created by society (primarily tools), as well as people with skills for work, capable of carrying out the process of production of material goods. The functioning of the means of production depends on the skill, knowledge and experience of people. Here, science, education, and culture are gaining importance.
Productive forces change quantitatively and qualitatively. An indicator of quantitative changes is the level of development of productive forces, expressed in labor productivity, technology. Qualitative changes are found in their nature, in what forces of nature are used by man (for example, the power of animals or electricity) and how, in what way they are used, are created and put into action by individual or collective labor.
The necessary side of production is the actual production relations, which represent the totality of material, economic relations between people. They also have objective reality and are formed independently of the will and desire of people, but in many respects they depend on the level and nature of productive forces. Industrial relations are leading, defining all other (partially and ideological) relations. And this is not accidental, because production relations are mainly associated with property. Developing in the sphere of production, property relations largely determine the relations of exchange, distribution and consumption of labor products. Property is not a property of things, but a special kind of relationship to the means of production.
Productive forces and production relations are two sides of a single production process. You can separate them from each other only in abstraction. Their interaction is subject to the law of conformity of production relations to the nature and level of productive forces. The essence of this correspondence is that changes in the productive forces, and primarily in the instruments of labor, cause corresponding changes in production relations. However, this does not mean at all that every change in productive forces is immediately reflected in production relations. The fact is that the development of productive forces takes place continuously, while a change in production relations manifests itself mainly when replacing one mode of production with another.
Resources are opportunities for creating benefits and satisfying needs.
Resources are diverse and can be classified in different ways.
Natural resources i.e. available mineral reserves of the company, favorable conditions for agriculture, favorable geographical position.
Resources created and accumulated by previous generations for production activities and consumption, i.e. existing enterprises, transportation systems, residential buildings, etc.
Human resources with their experience, qualifications, level of education, as well as entrepreneurial abilities.
Monetary, foreign exchange and other resources.
Technology and scientific and technical resources, i.e. the accumulations available to society, the backlogs of modern technological progress, etc.
Other resource classifications are possible. For example, according to the alternative possibilities of their use, interchangeability, exhaustibility and inexhaustibility in a given period of time, etc. However, regardless of the type of classification, all resources have one thing in common - they characterize the initial and basic premise of economic activity: the availability of resources of the required quality and diversity is a prerequisite for creating benefits and, therefore, satisfying needs.
In economic theory, resources are usually divided into four groups:
1. natural - potentially suitable for use in the production of natural forces and substances, among which there are "inexhaustible" and "exhaustible" (the latter are lastly divided into "renewable" and "non-renewable");
2. material - all means of production created by man (“man-made”), (which, therefore, are themselves the result of production);
3. labor - the population of working age, which in the "resource" aspect is usually assessed according to three parameters: socio-demographic, vocational qualification and cultural and educational;
4. financial - money that the company is able to allocate to organize production.
Classification of needs by the pyramid A. Maslow
The American psychologist Abraham Maslow throughout his life tried to prove the fact that people are constantly in the process of self-actualization. By this term he meant a person’s desire for self-development and constant realization of his inner potential. Self-actualization is the highest step among the needs, which are several levels in the human psyche. This hierarchy, described by Maslow in the 50s of the 20th century, was called the “Theory of Motivation” or, as it is commonly called, the pyramid of needs. Maslow's theory, that is, the pyramid of needs, has a step structure. The American psychologist himself explained such an increase in needs by the fact that a person will not be able to experience the needs of a higher level until he satisfies the basic and more primitive ones. Let us consider in more detail what this hierarchy represents.
Classification of needs
The Maslow pyramid of human needs is based on the thesis that human behavior is determined by basic needs, which can be built in steps, depending on the significance and urgency of their satisfaction for a person. Consider them starting with the lowest.
The first step is physiological needs. According to Maslow's theory, a man who is not rich and does not have many of the benefits of civilization will experience needs, primarily of a physiological nature. Agree, if you choose between a lack of respect and hunger, first of all you will satisfy your hunger. Physiological needs also include thirst, the need for sleep and oxygen, and sexual desire.
The second step is the need for security. A good example is babies. Even without a psyche, babies at the biological level, after satisfying thirst and hunger, seek protection and calm down, only feeling their mother’s warmth nearby. In adulthood, the same thing happens. In healthy people, the need for security is manifested in a mild form. For example, in the desire to have social guarantees in employment.
The third step is the need for love and belonging. In the pyramid of Maslow’s human needs, after satisfying physiological needs and ensuring safety, a person craves the warmth of friendly, family, or love relationships. The goal of finding a social group that satisfies these needs is the most important and significant task for a person. The desire to overcome the feeling of loneliness, according to Maslow, became the prerequisite for the appearance of all kinds of circles and clubs on interests. Loneliness contributes to the social maladjustment of a person, and the emergence of serious mental illnesses.
The fourth step is the need for recognition. Everyone needs a society to evaluate their merits. Maslow's need for recognition will be divided into a person’s desire for achievement and reputation. Having achieved something in life and having earned himself recognition and reputation, a person becomes confident in himself and in his abilities. Failure to meet this need, as a rule, leads to weakness, depression, and a feeling of despondency, which can lead to irreversible consequences.
The fifth step is the need for self-actualization (it is self-actualization). According to Maslow's theory, this need is the highest in the hierarchy. A person feels the need for improvement only after satisfying all lower needs.
Factors of production, stages of production and their characteristics
Factors of production - resources that must be expended in order to produce goods. These factors of production are labor and technology (human resources), land and capital (property resources). The following definitions of factors of production are adopted:
labor - physical and mental activity of a person, aimed at achieving a useful result;
technology - scientific methods for achieving practical goals, including entrepreneurial abilities;
land - everything that nature has placed at the disposal of man for his production activities (land, minerals, water, air, forests, etc.);
capital - the accumulated stock of funds in productive, monetary and commodity forms necessary for the creation of material goods.
A different interpretation of factors of production is contained in the textbooks “Economics”. It is based on the theory of three factors of production put forward by the French economist J.-B. Say. In Economics, resources are divided into:
1) material - land, or raw materials, and capital;
2) human - labor and entrepreneurial ability. Thus, in neoclassical theory, four factors stand out.
Land. This includes all natural resources, the so-called “free gifts of nature" used in the production process. These include, for example, resources such as arable land, forests, mineral deposits, oil, water, and air.
Capital. It includes all produced means of production, i.e. all types of tools, machinery, equipment, factories, warehouses, vehicles, distribution network used in the production and delivery of goods and services to the final consumer. All these elements of capital are called investment goods, in contrast to consumer goods that directly satisfy the needs of people. It should be noted that in this case, the term “capital” does not mean money, it acts as financial capital and is not real capital and economic resource.
Work. This term refers to the purposeful activity of a person, the use of a combination of his physical and mental abilities to achieve any result. The work carried out by a lumberjack, turner, baker, teacher, doctor, artist, scientist, etc., are united by the general concept of “labor”.
Entrepreneurial activity. A special type of human resource, which consists in the ability to most effectively use all other factors of production. This factor is highlighted in the textbooks “Economics” as a special one due to the specifics of entrepreneurial activity, which consists in the fact that:
1) the entrepreneur takes the initiative to combine the resources of land, capital and labor into a single process for the production of goods and services. He acts as a catalyst for this process;
2) the entrepreneur assumes the difficult task of making decisions and responsibility for their implementation;
3) an entrepreneur is an innovator;
4) entrepreneur - a person who takes risks.
In the era of scientific and technological revolution, the so-called specific factors of production arise. These include information, science, technology, industrial and social infrastructure. They have a special, ever-increasing significance.
"\u003e Stages of development of economic theory.
"\u003e (96.3 points, 1 answer is incorrect)
"\u003e 1.Locate economic schools of economics in chronological order of their occurrence
"\u003e Mercantilism -"\u003e 1; "\u003e Institutionalism -">4; "\u003e classical school of political economy -">2; ">
"\u003e marginalism -"\u003e 3. "\u003e
"\u003e 2. The neoclassical direction of economic theory, whose representatives attribute the leading role in stabilizing the economy to monetary factors, is called ..."\u003e monetarism.
"\u003e 3.Physiocrats believed that the wealth of society is created in ..."\u003e agriculture.
; color: # 000000 "\u003e 4 "\u003e. The ideas of classical political economy were developed in the 19th century by representatives of ..."\u003e"\u003e Marxism.
"\u003e 5. He studied the cyclical nature of economic development ..."\u003e N. D. Kondratiev.
"\u003e 6.Find compliance with scientific economic schools and their representatives
"\u003e Mercantilism -"\u003e A. Montretien; "\u003e
"\u003e Classical School of Political Economy -"\u003e A. Smith;"\u003e
"\u003e Monetarism -"\u003e M. Friedman "\u003e
"\u003e Institutionalism -"\u003e T. Veblen."\u003e
; color: # ff0000 "\u003e 7 "\u003e. Does not apply to modern areas of economic theory ...
"\u003e marginalism
"\u003e neoclassicism
"\u003e Keynesianism
"\u003e institutionalism
"\u003e 8.Place scientific economic schools in chronological order of their occurrence
"\u003e neoclassical school of political economy -"\u003e 3;"\u003e canonism - "\u003e 1 "\u003e; Keynesianism -">4 ">;
"\u003e classical school of political economy -">2. ">
; color: # 000000 "\u003e 9 "\u003e. The theory of property rights arose within ..."\u003e neoinstitutionalism.
; color: # 000000 "\u003e 10"\u003e ._ "\u003e"\u003e AND. T. Pososhkov "\u003e ___ - the first Russian economist to express his views in a separate work (book).
"\u003e 11. Foundations of the theory of factors of production laid ..."\u003e J. B. Say.
; color: # 000000 "\u003e 13. "\u003e The economic school that substantiated the need for state regulation of the economy is ..."\u003e Keynesian school.
"\u003e 14.Expressors of the economic thought of Ancient Greece are ... -"\u003e Plato;"\u003e - "\u003e Aristotle;"\u003e - "\u003e Xenophon.
"\u003e 15.Direction, which considers the whole complex of factors affecting the economy as the subject of economic theory ..."\u003e institutionalism.
"\u003e 16.To the scientific economic directions of the 20th century are ... -"\u003e Caseianism;"\u003e - "\u003e monetarism.
"\u003e 17.Economic school, which considered trade a source of wealth, is ..."\u003e mercantilism.
"\u003e 18.One of the representatives of the theory of marginalism is ..."\u003e A. Marshall.
"\u003e 20.Expressors of economic thought in the Middle Ages are ..."\u003e Ibn Khaldun;"\u003e - "\u003e Thomas Aquinas.
"\u003e 21. Set the correspondence between the works and their authors
"\u003e Tax Treaty"\u003e - Petty"\u003e;
"\u003e About poverty and wealth"\u003e - Pososhkov"\u003e;
"\u003e Treatise of Political Economy"\u003e - Montretien"\u003e;
"\u003e Study on the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples -"\u003e Smith."\u003e
"\u003e 22. The Nobel Prize in Economics for the development of the cost-output method was awarded ..."\u003e V. Leontiev.
"\u003e 23. The foundations of the labor theory of value were laid ..."\u003e A. Smith.
"\u003e 24. The representatives of the classical school of political economy are ... -"\u003e William Petty;"\u003e - "\u003e Adam Smith;"\u003e - "\u003e David Ricardo.
"\u003e 25. Do not belong to the scientific economic directions of the 20th century ... -"\u003e canonism;"\u003e - "\u003e mercantilism.
Since ancient times, mankind has been trying to understand what the essence of economic processes and laws is, how to increase productivity, which is a measure of the country's wealth. Over time, views on the characteristics of economic processes began to accumulate in certain trends, and then - economic schools.
Economic schools - This is a system of views on economic processes that has representatives and followers who are trying to explain the laws of development of the economic sphere of society, to offer their own ways to overcome the negative processes in it for the further development of society.
One of key questions economists The 16th century was the question of what wealth is and how it can be increased.
Appeared in the 20th century new questions: what are the laws of the country's economic development, what is the role of the state in the economy, what should be its intervention.
Let us consider how representatives of various economic schools answer these questions.
Economic schools
Mercantilism
(5th-late 17th c.)
Its representatives believed that the basis of the country's economic prosperity is wealth, namely silver and gold received by the country as a result of foreign trade.
Exports should exceed imports, this will lead to a reserve of gold and silver, and therefore to the welfare of the nation.
Their motto is: buy less, sell more.
The government should support its producers (protectionism).
Representatives:
Antoine de Moncrentien (Treatise on Political Economy, 1615)
Thomas Mann ("Discourse on the Trade of England with Ots India")
Physiocrats
(2 half of the 18th century) - believed that agriculture was the source of the country's wealth.
For the first time they divided the spheres of the economy in importance for the country. Natural resources, agriculture - are given from God, and the task of man is to multiply them.
And since the main wealth is “from the earth,” the state should not interfere with entrepreneurs, everything should go in a natural way.
Representatives: O. Quesnay, A. Turgot, Wieser.
Classical Political Economy
(18th-30th years of the 19th century) - its representatives studied relations in the production system, the objective laws of economic development, analyzed production itself, capital.
It was believed that the main area in the economy is production.
First formulated economic laws.
They considered the market as a self-regulating system (“the invisible hand of the market”, according to Smith).
They noted that the role of the state is only to support competition, provide communication, cost the road, and develop education.
They outlined the theory of labor value, according to which the only source of value is human activity.
They considered the production process as reproduction with its four stages: production, exchange, distribution, consumption.
K. Marx called them classics of political economy, hence the name of the school.
Representatives: A. Smith (“A Study on the Nature and Cause of the Wealth of Nations”), D. Ricardo (“The Beginning of Political Economy”), by Petit. S. Sismondi.
Marxism
(mid-19th century) - K. Marx developed the labor theory of value, for the first time created the doctrine of surplus value (it is appropriated by capitalists in the form of profit, which is the basis of exploitation).
He gave a definition of socio-economic formation, laying the foundation for the formation of the interaction of productive forces and production relations.
The conflict between productive forces ahead of development and lagging production relations can only be resolved through revolution. As a result, there is a change of formations.
The development of society is based on material production.
Representatives : K. Marx (“Capital”)
Malthusianism
(late 18th – 1st quarter of the 19th century) - Malthus formulated the law of diminishing soil fertility.
Population is growing, and limited resources are declining. It is possible to stop population growth only by misfortunes (wars, epidemics) and moral abstinence.
Representative: Thomas Malta "Essay on the Law of Population."
Marginalism
("School of marginal utility") - appeared in the second half of the 19th century.
Supporters noted that, along with the usefulness of the product, it is necessary to talk about its rarity.
Given the definition of value in terms of psychology of the buyer.
There is a hierarchy of needs.
The goal of a person is maximum satisfaction of needs.
The choice of consumers depends on the degree of importance of the good
Representatives: W. Jevons (“Theory of Political Economy”), L. Valras (“Elements of Pure Political Economy”), C. Menger (“Foundations of Political Economy”).
Neoclassical Political Economy
This is a leading trend in modern economic theory.
The object of study is the equilibrium of the management of individual economic units, the least state intervention in the economy.
They set out the theory of production costs.
The concept of equilibrium prices, studied the laws of supply and demand, the conditions of elasticity of demand.
Representatives: A. Marshall (“Principles of Political Economy”, 1890), A. Pigou, JB Clark.
Keynesianism
(30s of the 20th century — before our time) - representatives are sure that the state should actively intervene in the economy, regulate it by stimulating investment, aggregate demand, and pursuing a fiscal policy.
Representatives: D. Keynes (“General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money”)
Monetarism
(50s of the 20th century - to the present day) - representatives adhere to neoliberal views, advocate limited government intervention in the economy through the regulation of money circulation.
They believe that money is the main and decisive factor in a market economy. The state should carry out anti-inflationary activities.
Monetarist rule: money circulation should expand at the same rate as real GDP growth.
Market economy strives for stability.
Representatives: L. Friedman (“The role of monetary (monetary) policy”, “Money and economic development”)
Institutionalism
(70s of the 20th century) - it is based on the idea of \u200b\u200bthe importance of the activities of institutions in decision-making on economic issues (state, legislation, public organizations, etc.).
Representatives believe that the driving force behind the development of society is social, legal and psychological factors, and not the development of industrial relations.
They developed the theory of post-industrial society, which is based on the activities of independent public institutions.
Representatives : Gelbraith (“Society of Abundance”), Eiken, Veblen, A. Hobson, D. Commons, T. Verlaine, L. Erhard (“Welfare for all”)
Russian School of Economics
So generically called scientists-economists who have contributed to the development of science.
V. Dmitriev- proposed a methodology for applying applied mathematics in economic theory;
A. Chayanov- He did a lot in studying the theory of agrarian relations; N. Kondratiev- his theory of long waves underlies the concept of cyclical development of the economy, etc.
Note: a separate article is being prepared about the Russian economic school. Follow publications
Material prepared by: Melnikova Vera Aleksandrovna
Basic concepts
According to the leading historian of economic thought J. Schumpeter, the first publications devoted to I. e. at. articles by the French physiocrat Dupont de Nemours began in the journal Ephemerides (1767, 1768). A sufficiently serious analysis of early economic concepts was carried out by A. Smith, the founder of modern economic theory, in his treatise "The Wealth of Nations" (1776).
The British scientist in the pages of his book discusses with representatives of early concepts - mercantilists and physiocrats; it was in this work that the ideas of people who were interested in economic issues earlier were synthesized, and tasks requiring solutions were formulated. In the XIX century, economic theory arises in the form of separate courses at the law faculties of universities, then special economic faculties appear, and a circle of professional economists is formed.
For example, in 1805, the English economist T. Malthus became a professor of modern history and political economy at a college in the East India Company; in 1818, the post of professor of moral philosophy and political economy appeared at Columbia University (New York); in 1819, the French scientist J.-B. Say took up the chair of industrial economics at the Paris Conservatory of Arts and Crafts. In the future, political economy as a special subject begins to be taught at Oxford (1825), University College London (1828), and the University of Dublin (1832).
In parallel with this process, economists are increasingly interested in the history of their science. In the years 1824-25. essays dedicated to I.E., the Ricardian J. R. McCulloch appear; in 1829, the French classic J.-B. Say devoted the history of science to the 6th volume of his “Complete Course of Practical Political Economy”. In 1837, the “History of Political Economy in Europe” was published by the French economist Jerome - Adolf Blanca (1798-1854); in 1845 - the new work of J. R. McCulloch “Political Economy Literature”; An analysis of economic doctrines can be found in the book of the German economist B. Hildebrandt “Political Economy of the Present and the Future” (1848) and a number of publications by his compatriot V. Rocher; in 1850-1868 several articles are published on the same topic by the Italian scientist Francesco Ferrara (1810-1900); with the work "Essay on the History of Political Economy" (1858) was made by the Russian economist I. V. Vernadsky; the German philosopher E. Dühring in 1871 published "Critique of the History of National Economy and Socialism"; in 1888, the book of Dublin professor J.K. Ingram, The History of Political Economy, was published.
Among the Russian courses I. e. at. XIX century - beginning of the twentieth century. you can also highlight the "Essay on the History of Political Economy" (1883) II. Ivaniukov, “The History of Political Economy” (1892) by A. I. Chuprov, “The History of Political Economy” (1900) by L.V. Fedorovich; also the work “History of Political Economy. Philosophical, historical and theoretical principles of the economy of the 19th century ”(1909) A.N. Miklashevsky. As part of the book "Economic Essays," Russian scientist V.K. Dmitriev analyzes and revises the basic principles of the theory of labor value and rent of D. Ricardo, the distribution concept of I. von Tyunen, the competition model of O. Cournot and the basic principles of marginalism using mathematical methods.
The great English economist A. Marshall also made his contribution to this field of economic knowledge. He devoted his life to the inclusion in his treatise Principles of Economic Science (1891), an appendix entitled Development of Economic Science. "The History of Production and Distribution Theories in English Political Economy from 1776 to 1848" by the English economist E. Kennan, published in 1893, contains an interesting interpretation of the ideas of D. Ricardo, J. and J. S. Millay, T. Malthus and others. It can be said that the formation of the history of economic science ended in the late XIX - early XX centuries, when this scientific discipline began to be taught at the Paris Sorbonne. Among the works of the beginning of the 20th century devoted to the IEM, it is worth highlighting K. Marx's Theories of Surplus Value as edited by K. Kautsky (1905-1910), which analyzes the theories of A. Smith, D. Ricardo, and representatives of T. n “Vulgar political economy” (including T. Malthus, J.-B. Say, J.S. Mill, and others). In 1909, the first edition of The Stories of Economic Doctrines (in the Russian translation - “I.E. U.”) by French economists S. Gide and S. Rist was published. A characteristic feature of this work is the analysis of ideas not only related to the orthodox direction of economic theory; in particular, the concepts of various socialist trends are considered: sensimonists, utopians, Fabians, anarchists (including the views of M. A. Bakunin and P. A. Kropotkin). The most important work devoted to the history of mercantilist theory and retaining its scientific significance to this day is the two-volume work of the Swedish economist E. Hekscher "Mercantilism" (1934). In the famous "General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money" (1936) by J. M. Keynes, an extensive chapter 23 is devoted to a very thorough analysis of the ideas of mercantilists, with whom the English economist was mentally together. The largest work in this branch of scientific knowledge is the treatise “The History of Economic Analysis” by J. Schumpeter.
In 1962, the first edition of the book was published by the American scientist Mark Blaug, “Economic Thought in Retrospect,” a distinguishing feature of which is a mathematical interpretation of the ideas of prominent economists who did not use mathematical methods of research; theoretical “guides” help to travel through the main works of A. Smith, D. Ricardo, J. S. Mill, C. Marx, A. Marshall, G. Wickstead, C. Wicksell. Among the subsequent significant works in the field of I. e. at. should highlight the work of R. Heilbroner, "Philosophers of this world. Great economic thinkers: their life, era and ideas ”(1953, 2000); the book of the famous American economist J. Stigler, “Essays on the History of Economic Theory” (1965), the posthumous publication of the book by W. K. Mitchell, “Types of Economic Theory: From Commercialism to Institutionalism” (1967); "Development of economic thought" (1971) G. Spiegel; “The History of Economic Argumentation” (1982) C. Pribrama, “Economic Science in the Perspective” (1987) J. K. Galbraith.
Economic schools
Economic schools - the teachings on the construction of the economy in the state that arose at different times.
Major economic schools
- The economic thought of antiquity and the Middle Ages
- Left-wing political economy
Brief information
There are many competing directions in economic science, however, the division into classical and neoclassical schools is recognized as the main division. Adam Smith (1723-1790), the founder of classical political economy, first investigated and emphasized the importance of the concept of economic value and the distribution of wealth between classes - workers, capitalists and landowners.
The Marxist trend in political economy is one of the branches of the classical school. Marxism - Marxist economics (Marxist economics): the direction of classical economic science, developed by Karl Marx (1818-1883), which gave economic thought a strong political connotation. Developing Adam Smith's concept of labor as a source of economic value (labor theory of value - labor theory of value), K. Marx argued that in the course of the production process the capitalists receive surplus value from the labor of workers, leaving them only the wages necessary for their existence. From the point of view of Marx, capitalist economy must go through ever deeper crises that will change the consciousness of the working class, which will ultimately destroy capitalism, and then the state will come under the control of the working people.
The neoclassical school, which currently dominates Western economic thought, emphasizes the importance of distributing limited resources between competing economic agents. The founders of this school - W.S. Jevons (1835-1882) and M. Walras (1834-1910) - are called marginalists. In turn, neoclassical economic theory is divided into two broad areas of research: microeconomics (microeconomics), which analyzes the relationship between individual business units (consumer, company, etc.), and macroeconomics (macroeconomics), which analyzes the relationship between aggregated economic quantities, monetary mass, unemployment and the state. In both of these areas, the main objects of research are individual individuals and households, not classes.
The set of the main currents of modern economic thought in the West was called the mainstream. The mainstream paradigm does not deny the important role of economic relations, Marxism and political economy in general, which in particular finds development in the institutional economy, but at the same time does not consider economic relations to be the central, and even more so, the only object of study of economic science.
Economic models in the TEC and economics format do not have sufficient adequacy, and their formation is subject to ideological influence to one degree or another, however, if you focus on practice as a criterion of truth, then economics models from an economic point of view are more effective in Western countries ( USA), and PES models - of the East (China).
In 2006, the authors of Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything (Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything) proposed the term “Wikinomics” to refer to business technologies in which companies use the principles of mass collaboration to achieve commercial success. open source ideology.
The strongest scientific current in the world is neoclassic. The last 10 years were marked by the heyday of the New Institutionalism, but the final victory of this school in the "battle for minds" has not yet occurred. Keynes's ideas, which take shape in the form of a new school - Neo-Keynesianism, also have their active followers.
There was competition between schools, but also many schools that existed at one time did not compete with each other. Since they were studying various aspects of the economy, they could therefore coexist peacefully at the same time.
The result of the emergence of economic schools are economic laws that are applied in practice.
see also
References
Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.
See what "Economic Schools" are in other dictionaries:
Economic schools - systems of views and theoretical research of representatives of various areas of economic thought, having their founders and followers, justifying their own concept and trying to explain the basic laws of economic ... ... Economy. Dictionary of Social Studies
Economic schools - (economics, schools of). Historically from ser. 16 century until the last quarter of the 20th century the development of the economy, thoughts went in line with the five main. schools: mercantilism; French economy physiocrats; Classical (and neoclassical.) Political economy; Keynesianism and ... ... Peoples and cultures
Main articles: USSR economy, 1990s in the Russian economy See also: Reforms of the government of Yeltsin Gaidar Economic reforms in Russia, carried out in the 1990s in the Russian Federation and including price liberalization, liberalization ... ... Wikipedia
A term for regular fluctuations in the level of business activity from an economic boom to an economic downturn. In the business cycle, four distinct phases are distinguished: peak, decline, bottom, or low point, and rise. A peak or peak ... ... Encyclopedia of Collier
SCHOOLS BOURGEOIS CRIMINAL LAW - - various directions in the bourgeois "science" of criminal law. Each of these areas, appearing at a certain period in the development of capitalism, reflects the political characteristics of this period and serves the interests of the bourgeoisie in power. IN… … Soviet law dictionary
Information on the presence of organizational structures in management practice is found on clay tablets dated to the third millennium BC. However, although management itself is quite old, the idea of \u200b\u200bmanagement as a scientific discipline, profession ... Wikipedia
The building of the London School of Economics and Political Science. Main Entrance Summer Schools London School of Economics (Eng. LSE Summer Schools) profile courses ... Wikipedia
Foreign trade Foreign trade development. Russia's foreign trade reflected the nature of its economy. The main role in the export was played by food products and raw materials for their production (54.7% of all exports in 1913). In import ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia