Formation of an industrial economic system. Specificity of the industrial economic system Formation of the industrial system
Formation of an industrial economic system:
options for the development of industrial capitalism.
The transition to an industrial system of economy was carried out in the course of industrial revolutions, which are often called industrial revolutions, which meant radical restructuring of production. First industrial revolutionfrom a technical point of view, it represents a transition from manual labor to mechanized, from an organizational point of view - the creation of factories instead of manufactures that used machine systems. Second industrial revolution- electrical - associated with the qualitative improvement of production through the development of the use of electricity. Often, the first industrial revolution is called the industrial revolution, and the second industrial revolution is called the second technological revolution. Third industrial revolution, which began in the second half of the twentieth century, expressed in the invention of computers and telecommunications, led to the widespread use of information technology.
There are usually three stages in an industrial revolution:
1st stage - the emergence of working machines (initially in the textile industry, and then in other industries);
2nd stage - invention of the steam engine as an engine for working machines;
3rd stage - creation of working machines for the production of other working machines.
The industrial revolution had the most important economic and social consequences: industry came to the fore in national production, branches of heavy industry and new types of transport developed at an outstripping pace, capitalist forms of organizing agricultural production, trade, the monetary sphere, and the tax system were developed.
Industrial revolutions took place in all countries that entered the industrial path of development; they had both general and specific prerequisites associated with the historical, economic, political, social and cultural characteristics of societies. The transition to an industrial system - industrial capitalism was carried out in the following ways:
1) revolutionary, as was the case in England and France;
2) reformist, which was characteristic of Germany and Russia;
3) resettlement that took place in the United States;
4) revolutionary reformist, characteristic of Japan.
Industrial revolution in Englandit started earlier than in other countries - from the 60s of the XVIII century. - and lasted until the 20s of the XIX century.
In the second half of the 18th century. in England, the preconditions for an industrial revolution were formed. The first machines appeared in the cotton industry. This industry was relatively young and receptive to progressive endeavors. In 1733, John Kay invented the flying shuttle, which doubled the productivity of the weaver. In 1765, a mechanical spinning wheel - "Jenny" appeared, which replaced the work of 16-18 spinners. The loom invented in 1785 made it possible to replace the labor of 40 weavers.
In the course of the industrial revolution, there was a transition to a factory form of organization of production. The use of machines with a water engine contributed to the introduction of machines that could only be used in special production facilities - factories.
Technical progress in ferrous metallurgy was achieved when it was possible to use coal in the production of iron and steel. Over a short period (1788-1804), pig iron smelting increased threefold. In the same period, the first metal-cutting machine tools were created, and mechanical engineering began to develop.
The most important stage of technical progress was the creation in 1784 of a steam engine, which could be used in all industries, as well as on new types of vehicles - steamships and steam locomotives. The first steamship appeared in England in 1811. The first railroad was built in 1825. The use of new vehicles made it possible to speed up circulation and reduce the cost of transporting goods. The creation of fundamentally new types of transport, corresponding to the industrial structure of industrial production, testified that in the first third of the XIX century. the industrial revolution has entered its final stage. As a result of the industrial revolution and the subsequent industrial boom in 1850-1870. changed the sectoral structure of the economy of England. From an agrarian country, it turned into an industrial power. In 1870, about 50% of the country's labor resources were concentrated in industry and construction; 86% of the population lived in cities and workers' settlements.
By the 1840s, England had become the "workshop of the world", accounting for more than half of the production of metal and cotton fabrics, the bulk of the production of machines. Cheap English fabrics filled the whole world and ruined artisans not only in England, but also in India, China, and many European countries. The income, on which the artisans of these countries used to exist, now went to England. Many states tried to close themselves off from British commodity intervention - in response, England proclaimed "free trade"; in every possible way - often with the use of military force - it sought to remove protectionist customs barriers and to "open" other countries for British goods. Trade was vital to England, it lived on the exchange of manufactured goods for raw materials and food.
The industrial revolution in England had profound social consequences: the industrial proletariat and the industrial bourgeoisie arose. The Industrial Revolution caused a deterioration in the position of the English working class. The working day lasted from 12 to 16 hours, child and female labor began to be used, which led to a decrease in the real cost of labor.
A spontaneous labor movement breaks out in England, which was
aimed at destroying machines, called Luddism after the first weaver Ludd, who crashed a car. It swept through entire textile regions and gained such a scale that the government was forced to pass laws under which the death penalty was imposed for the destruction of a machine.
In the 30s - 40s. XIX century. in England, an organized labor movement is being formed, which puts forward not only economic demands, but also political ones (election to government). This labor movement was called the Chartist movement. In 1840, the first workers' party appeared in England, which was named the National Chartist Organization.
The emergence of an industrial economic system in England changed the organization of markets, money circulation and taxes. Great changes have taken place in the organization of exchanges, which have lost their universal character. All types of British stock exchanges were private-entrepreneurial institutions. After 1815 England became a capital market for the whole world. Many European states and the United States resorted to British loans. The London Stock Exchange is becoming the place where funds could be found for every promising venture.
Since 1833 were created joint stock deposit banks.The first was organized in 1834 in London. The next step in the organization of the monetary system was the act of Robert Peel (1844), which defined the rules for the central bank, which was assigned the privilege of issuing throughout the country. The development of the country's economy required stable monetary circulation, which was achieved on the basis of gold standard- a monetary system in which gold played the role of a universal equivalent, when paper money was exchanged for gold at a fixed rate. The recognition of gold as world money was formalized by the decision of an international conference in Paris in 1867. The centralized gold reserves of states became the main reserves of international means of payment. All central banks' foreign exchange reserves were denominated in British pounds sterling and held in London banks.
Industrial revolution that began in France in the last years of the 18th century, was accelerated by the Great French Revolution. The guild system was destroyed, and the principles of free trade were recognized. The fall of the feudal regime facilitated the migration of peasants and contributed to the emergence of the labor market. At the beginning of the XIX century. the capacity of the domestic market has increased significantly, including due to the improvement of the economic situation of the peasantry. In addition, the Napoleonic campaigns expanded the export of French finished goods. British competition forced to accelerate the mechanization of production, including through the use of British technology.
Until the middle of the XIX century. in terms of economic development, France was in second place after England. During the empire of Napoleon III (1852–1870), dozens of joint-stock companies arose in France, various banks were established, companies were created to build railways, docks, factories, factories and other enterprises. The mining and metallurgical industries developed rapidly, a wide network of railways was built, the length of which in 1870 amounted to 17.9 thousand km against 3.7 thousand km in 1851. The process of concentration of production was actively taking place, especially in the metallurgical industry. The number of steam engines used in industry has increased more than 10 times. During the period from 1851 to 1871, the rural population decreased by 1.7 million, while the urban population increased by 2.1 million.
Until the middle of the XIX century. credit and banking systemFrance was poorly developed. In 1800, a central issuing institution was organized - the French Bank and small local issuing banks, which later became its branches. The desire of the Bank of France to monopolize the issue of banknotes and other areas of banking held back the development of joint-stock banks.
The first large joint-stock bank in France was the Credit Mobilier bank, created in 1852. This bank, along with the joint-stock mortgage bank French Land Credit and the Society for Mutual Credit for Small Trade, became the center of the credit system, which united countless small capitals. The next step in the development of banking in the country was the issuance of a concession in 1859 for the creation of the first depositary joint-stock bank Societe Generale (industrial and commercial credit). In 1864, the General Society for the Promotion of Trade and Industry in France was founded, which became a new type of bank, connecting a deposit bank and a society for financing and founding enterprises.
The beginning of the industrial revolution in the German states falls in the mid-30s of the XIX century. It originally started in the weaving industry. After the revolution of 1848, the pace of the industrial revolution increased and it spread to other industries. For the 50s of the XIX century. the volume of industrial production doubled, and in the 60s increased by another half.
The factors that precipitated the industrial revolution in Germany include:
· Implementation of agrarian reforms and development of capitalism in agriculture;
· Creation of a customs union in 1834;
· Pressure from English competition;
· Strengthening the processes of initial capital accumulation;
· Widespread use of foreign technology.
The branches of heavy industry developed at a faster pace. The chemical industry was widely developed. The discovery of aniline dyes (1856) formed the basis for the production of not only paints, but also pharmaceuticals, explosives, and rubber. The largest machine-building plants at that time appeared in Germany. On the basis of a generator invented by Ernst Siemens in 1867 for generating electric current, the electrical industry began to develop.
New enterprises in the heavy industry were real industrial giants, equipped with the most advanced equipment, operating on the basis of the latest technologies. The material basis of the dynamically developing heavy industry was railway construction. In 1880 Germany ranked first in Europe in terms of track length. In terms of the relative density of roads, it was second only to Belgium and England. Of great importance for the accelerated development of heavy industry was the militarization of Prussia, which sought to unite Germany by force, as well as preparations for war with France. A powerful military-industrial complex was created in Germany.
Achievements in agriculture were achieved through the rational use of land and the use of improved methods of tillage and cultivation of the soil, and the application of fertilizers. In the XIX century. there was a transition to intensive farming. A decisive role in the rapid spread of intensive methods of tillage was played by the scientific discoveries of the German chemist Justus Liebig, which became a turning point in the development of world agricultural technology and agrochemistry, the science of artificial fertilizers. Germany quickly became a global supplier of mineral fertilizers. The use of machinery in agriculture was of great importance.
Credit systemthe country was formed in the XIX century. In the initial period of the industrial revolution (30s - 40s), the formation of joint-stock banks was allowed only in the small German states, where they were created. After the organization of the North German Union, a legislative restriction of the rights of local banks to issue banknotes began, the centralization of the issue business in the hands of a state credit institution, the Prussian Bank, became one of the main conditions for the creation of a single economic space.
Lending to industry and trade until the middle of the 19th century. carried out by private banks. In 1850-1870. they could no longer meet the need for credit. During this period, the creation of joint-stock banks began, capable of mobilizing funds and turning them to the needs of a developing economy.
Large banking houses and industrial firms took part in organizing the largest joint-stock banks. The activities of private joint-stock banks were of a specialized nature - by sector of the economy and individual territories. Another feature of the large joint-stock banks in Germany was the universal nature of their activities. Private joint-stock banks established close ties with industrial enterprises, which became the basis for the further intertwining of their activities.
Industrial revolution in the USA began in the first decade of the 19th century. In the north-east of the country, he basically repeated the classical English model and ended by 1860 with the approval of the factory type of production in the leading sectors of the economy.
The initial phase of the industrial revolution was marked by mechanization and the establishment of a factory system in textile production. The first machines appeared in cotton spinning at the end of the 18th century. After the Anglo-American wars of 1812-1815. a long rise in national industry began. It was facilitated by the reorientation of investment from trade and shipping to industry and the government's protectionist policies. In terms of the level of mechanization of weaving, the northeastern states surpassed England in the 30s. Along with textile production, the industrial revolution swept the food industry, as well as industries producing consumer goods.
The industrial revolution caused the development of the construction of canals, highways and railways. The pace of railroad construction in the United States was the fastest in the world. The foundations of the modern metallurgical industry were laid in 1816 by the creation of small rolling steel mills near Pittsburgh. Innovations were mastered on them - steel began to be obtained by puddling, and not by blowing, instead of forging, they began to use rolled products.
By the beginning of the 60s of the XIX century. in the north-east of the country, large-scale factory engineering appeared, which indicated that the industrial revolution was entering its final stage. Fulton's invention and the launching of the first steamer, the Claremont, in 1807 led to a revolution in river and sea transport.
The radical shifts in the sectoral structure of the economy were expressed primarily in the fact that already in 1850 industrial products surpassed agricultural products in value, the production of which was also growing rapidly.
Producers of agricultural products in the northeastern states, who did not have large plots, were moving from extensive to intensive farming with a focus on dairy production, growing vegetables, and industrial gardening.
In the first half of the XIX century. increased significantly volume of foreign tradeUSA. In exports, agricultural raw materials and food prevailed, finished goods accounted for 12% of exports. During this period, there was still a dependence on the import of foreign, primarily British, machinery and equipment, industrial goods.
The transition to the national monetary decimal system was fully implemented only after the Civil War. In accordance with the law on minting coins, a bimetallic standard based on gold and silver was established.
First Bank of the United Statescreated in 1791 ., performed many functions. The most important of these was the regulation of the amount of money in circulation. Following the example of the Bank of England, this institution was the first example of legislative control over banking. Since the Bank of the United States was the custodian of the federal government funds, it could present the notes to the issuing bank (issuing bank) for exchange for gold and silver. In performing this function, the bank acted as a central bank regulating the amount of money in circulation. With the end of its existence in 1811, the number of banks in the United States began to grow rapidly. If by 1800 29 banks were opened, then in 1860 there were 1601 of them.
Solving the task of transforming Japan into a powerful military-industrial power in the shortest possible time, the government used the Western European and North American experience and took into account national characteristics and the specific economic situation in the country. The Japanese government was forced to resort to state-owned enterprises. Military enterprises became its basis. The government built large industrial facilities, attracting the most advanced equipment, technology, capital, and specialists from abroad. The erected "exemplary" factories, factories, shipyards, mining mines, railway and telegraph lines were supposed to create a powerful military-industrial potential, ensure the flow of funds into the state budget, and serve as a standard for the capitalist organization of production for the nascent national industrial bourgeoisie. The state assumed the main costs of organizing technically complex and new production facilities. This made it possible to increase the competitiveness of goods, increase their exports, produce products previously imported from abroad, which ensured an increase in the government's foreign exchange reserves. By the early 80s of the XIX century. the state owned 5 shipyards, 5 military arsenals, 10 mines, 52 factories, 51 merchant ships, 100 km of railways, and a telegraph system.
In the early 70s of the XIX century. the government began to organize a new monetary system. A group of "national banks" was created with the support of the state. The state in 1882 established the Bank of Japan and endowed it with the right to issue new banknotes.
In the 1980s, the government moved on to implement a new economic policy. Its goal was to create conditions for the activation of private entrepreneurship through the privatization of state property. State-owned enterprises were sold, leased, transferred to pay off debts to government creditors. The first joint-stock company was founded in 1881, and 15 more companies were organized in the next decade. As a result of the privatization of state-owned objects, private entrepreneurship in industry, transport and construction has intensified.
The originality of the development of the industrial revolution in Russia was determined by the following:
1) poverty and illiteracy of the population;
2) the need for large initial investment for the organization of production;
3) preservation of serfdom;
4) the mobilization path of industrialization development, caused by the special role of the state;
5) strong foreign competition, both national and foreign.
The state sought to develop industry guided primarily by military objectives, therefore, the growth of capital investment in heavy industry occurred at the expense of light industry and agriculture, which used labor-intensive methods. Russia turned out to be the only country among the main industrial countries that undertook industrialization without having a strong agricultural sector.
There are two stages of the industrial revolution in Russia:
1.15 - 30s XIX century. - the preparatory period - the introduction of the first English steam engines in the cotton industry (the first domestic steam engine Polzunov was invented in 1790)
2.30 - 60s XIX century. - the spread of factory forms of production in light and heavy industry; the emergence of domestic mechanical engineering; construction of railways.
Overcoming the country's technological backwardness rested on social backwardness, which was reflected in the peculiarities of the course of industrialization in Russia:
The predominance of hired labor in the form of seasonal work;
Lack of interest in using new technologies;
The cheapness of serf labor;
The narrowness of the domestic and foreign markets;
Lack of necessary capital in the country;
Continuation of the initial capital process;
Strong role of the state in stimulating the development of production.
Changes in the economy influenced the determination of the course of foreign economic policy, which had a pronounced prohibition-protectionist character. But the protectionist nature of customs legislation did not meet the needs of a developing state, since, unlike developed countries in Russia, revenues from foreign trade went mainly to military needs and to the unproductive consumption of the ruling circles. Only in the 60s. a policy reorientation begins, characterized by the expansion of the internal market by stimulating investment in industry and railroad construction, as well as by providing assistance to agriculture. The main obstacle to the development of the national internal market was the underdevelopment of agriculture. The availability of vacant land preserved the basis for an extensive type of development. By the middle of the XIX century. in Russia, objectively, a general structural crisis of the feudal-serf system has matured.
The most important link in the reform of the 60-70s. was the abolition of serfdom. The content of this reform, set out in the Regulations of February 19, 1861 ., boiled down to the following: serfs were declared personally free without any ransom, they received allotments from the landowner, for which they continued to serve corvee or quitrent, that is, they became temporarily obligated. The peasants could redeem not only the estate, but also by mutual agreement with the landlord and field land, using a government loan for this. Upon completion of the redemption, the patrimonial supervision of the landowner over the peasants was terminated, their state of being temporarily obligated ended, the peasants passed into the position of free owners. The relationship between the landowner and the peasants was mediated by the community, which, in particular, collectively paid for 49 years the redemption loan provided by the state. Coming out of serfdom, the peasants remained in the community, received a certain amount of self-government and jointly bore obligations to the state. In other words, the reform was based on the extension and conservation of semi-feudal relations. The ransom was a peculiar form of feudal rent. It was even formally calculated from the amount of the quitrent: for the allotment it was necessary to pay such an amount that, being put in the bank, gives the landowner a quitrent payment in the form of interest. In the bourgeoisization of the agrarian sector, which became the main consequence of the peasant reform, there were both similarities with the Prussian way of developing agriculture, and differences.
Beginning with innovations in the agrarian sphere, the reforms carried out according to a single plan have spread to many spheres of public life, becoming complex. Of particular importance for the development of the domestic economy was the zemstvo reform of 1864, which promoted the intensification of the activities of the main producers of industrial goods for the population - artisan peasants.
Financial reform also played an important role. Until 1861, the country's credit system was represented by state noble banks, which provided loans to landowners on the security of estates, and private banking houses, which provided loans to industry. In 1860, the State Bank was created, which until the end of the century did not have the right to independently issue banknotes, but could only replace old banknotes with new ones, accept deposits and issue loans, sell and buy gold, silver, foreign currency and securities. After the reform of 1861, the state banks were merged with the State Bank. During this period, commercial banks began to actively operate. The first joint-stock commercial bank (St. Petersburg) opened on November 1, 1864, then a number of commercial bank offices arose in the capital, in 1870 the Volzhsko-Kamsky and then the Azov-Don banks were formed. In addition, reforms of a more private nature were carried out in the economy: the abolition of wine leases and their replacement with a unified system of excise and patent fees (1863), attempts to restore the value of the ruble (1862–1863), and others.
The fundamental difference between the reforms of the 60-70s. from all the previous ones was the creation of legal guarantees for entrepreneurs from the state. An end was put to the inequality of estates in the rights to engage in private business.
All these transformations did not differ in sequence, but they turned out to be very significant for the economy, since they marked the beginning of the stage of market growth and discontinuity in the model of the country's economic development. The liberation of almost 2/5 of the country's population from serfdom gave a serious impetus to the growth of the population, which from 1860 to 1897. grew by 52 million people, mainly due to natural increase. The collection of basic agricultural crops was constantly increasing. Their yield increased by an average of 50%, for comparison, during this period in European countries, it increased by 2-4 times. The changes taking place in agriculture have contributed to a shift in the structure of the economy associated with a gradual decrease in the share of the agricultural sector in the total volume of the national product. The abolition of serfdom led, on the one hand, to the transition of industry to free-hired labor, on the other, to the formation of a labor market. This was one of the reasons for the temporary decline, especially in industries that used serf labor. The acceleration of industrial growth took place after 1875, and then, after a break in the late 80s. XIX century.
INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY (XIX - mid. XX centuries): characteristic features BASIS OF ECONOMY: q PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING OF RESOURCES q. INDUSTRY q EXCESSIVE GROWTH OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP APPROVAL OF THE MARKET ECONOMY ü ACCELERATED FORMATION OF BURGHOISIE AND WORKING CLASS ü HIGH LEVEL OF URBANIZATION ü WIDE DEVELOPMENT OF MEDIA OF COMMISSION MASSOVER
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION): A system of economic and socio-political changes based on the transition from manufacture to factory (plant) - large machine industry. The beginning of the industrial revolution: invention and implementation of working machines in production (replacement of manual labor) Completion. PP: development of machine production (production by machines)
STORONS Industrial revolution TECHNICAL Transition from manual to mechanized labor ORGANIZATIONAL Transition from manufacture to factories SOCIAL The emergence of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat
Free competition E Entrepreneurship R Growth of industry T Subordination of the village to the city S Dominance of monetary relations
The economic basis § Private ownership of the means of production § Exploitation of employees § Formation of the world economy
PRODUCTIONS Industrial revolution General for all countries - economic: Ø Initial accumulation of capital Ø Sources of raw materials - iron, coal Ø Availability of a fleet Ø Developed manufacturing industry
FOUNDATION OF INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY: IDEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC Ø philosophy of the Enlightenment c. England, (17th from 18th century - France, etc.) ideological - the foundation of the industrial society: liberalism Ø industrial revolution (beginning: England, 1760s - 1st quarter of the 19th century) - preparation of the economic foundation industrial society
Capitalist industrialization Begins with light industry, because less capital advance is required § capital turns around faster
ü accumulation of capital - an impulse for the development of heavy industry, which soon takes a dominant position ü gradually industrialization covers transport, communications, agriculture
Economic consequences of the transition to a factory Intensification of labor The emergence of unemployment as a social category The transformation of the worker into an appendage of the machine Widespread use of female and child labor
Industrial Revolution England France Russia 30s - 80s XIX century. Japan 70s - 90s XIX century. 2nd floor XVIII - 1st third of the XIX centuries. late XVIII - mid. XIX centuries.
THE PERIOD OF FORMATION OF THE INDUSTRIAL ECONOMIC SYSTEM - 2nd HALF. 18 - 19 BB. ENGLAND - A PIONEER OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM (“revolutionary” model)
BACKGROUND PROM. ENGLISH TURN TO SER. 18 V.: Ø Consequences of Eng. bourgeois. rev-tion ser. 17 strengthening of the bourgeoisie, expansion of the wage labor market Ø parliamentary system favorable for business environment Ø active colonial expansion (new markets for raw materials and sales) Ø high degree of division of labor and specialization of production operations in manufactories soil for replacing manual labor with machine labor Ø availability of stocks of kam. coal (cheap fuel, energy source)
PP in England (1760th - 1st quarter of the 19th century) BEGINNING - IN LIGHT INDUSTRY (production of cotton fabrics) Reasons: competition with Indian fabrics) § 1765, James Hargreaves invention - spinning machine (spinning wheel "Jenny") beginning of the machine age
REGULARITIES OF FORMATION OF LARGE MACHINE PRODUCTION DEVELOPMENT OF WORKING MACHINES (spinning machines, weaving machines) ENGINE CHANGE (steam engine) TECHNICAL. REVOLUTION IN THE INDUSTRY TECHNICAL REVOLUTION IN TRANSPORT (steam locomotive, steamer) q CHANGE IN ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY (from manual manufacture of machines to machine production) Ø TRANSITION FROM SIMPLE COOPERATION OF HOMOGENEOUS MACHINES TO A SYSTEM (COMPLEX) TO DIFFERENT MACHINES
BASIC BRANCHES OF ENGLAND ECONOMY TO SER. 19 C. HEAVY INDUSTRY: q production of steam engines q coal mining q iron smelting q shipbuilding LIGHT INDUSTRY: q cotton (textiles are the main export commodity!) TRANSPORT: q shipping, rail CONSTRUCTION: q canals, paved roads, railways
ENGLAND IS THE LEADER IN THE WORLD ECONOMY by mid. 19th century : manufacturer of more than 1/3 of the world's products! ENGLAND WAS THE FIRST: Ø the establishment of capitalism of free competition Ø the beginning of the export of capital Ø the introduction of the gold standard (England is the center of the international monetary system) Ø the two-tier banking system Ø the introduction of a progressive income tax (1842) Ø the beginning of shipping Ø the creation of a unified transport. systems
ECONOMIC LIBERALISM AS THE BASIS OF GOVERNMENT POLICY OF ENGLAND IN THE FIRST HALF. 19 C. abolition of the grain laws (1846) ü restriction of the monopoly rights of colonial trading companies ü opening of British ports for courts of all countries ü abolishing import duties on raw materials and semi-finished products ü freedom of organizing joint-stock companies ü development of factory legislation (protection of the interests of entrepreneurs and workers) ü
THE SPECIFICITY OF THE FORMATION OF INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES q "revolutionary" model (England: 1760s - 1st quarter of the 19th century; France: late 18th century - 1860s). q “reformist” model (Germany: 1815 -70s; Russia: 1830s-70s) q “revolutionary-reformist” model (Japan: 2nd half of 19) c. q “resettlement” model (USA: late 18th century - 1860s)
FEATURES OF THE "REFORMIST" MODEL OF THE FORMATION OF INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM (GERMANY, RUSSIA) § § § transition to industrial. general-woo through reforms (not revolution) the leading role of the state in this transition to the important role of reforms in the agricultural sector (slow pace) despite the development of market relations, the agricultural sector remained the leading sector of the economy long-term preservation of feudal remnants
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE "REVOLUTIONARY REFORM" MODEL (JAPAN) the role of an external factor the power path: the inclusion of Japan in the system of the world market (early 1850s, USA) § “Meiji Revolution” (1867 -68) - internal stimulus of capitalism § Special role of state -wa bourgeois. reforms of the 1860s-70s in the years. : combination of Western experience with national characteristics (“family model”); priority of military industries § early development of monopolies (zaibatsu - at) stages of industrial revolution § light and food industries remained the leading industries §
Features of the "resettlement" path of development of capitalism (USA) significant influence of resettlement factors ü inflow of immigrants and capital from the West. Europe an active role of the state ("railway revolution", etc.) achievement of an optimal combination of heavy light and food industries, economic liberalism with American specifics (the concept of the economist G.C. Carey) discovery of gold deposits in California ("gold rush", mid . X IX century) § § §
APPROVAL OF THE INDUSTRIAL MODEL ("CLASSICAL" CAPITALISM) BY THE END OF THE 19th CENTURY. THE ENTRY OF CAPITALISM INTO THE MONOPOLY STAGE (late 19th - early 20th centuries); q q INCREASED STATE INTERVENTION IN THE ECONOMY
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN RUSSIA (1830s - 1880s). THE GREAT REFORMS OF ALEXANDER II AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE RUSSIAN ECONOMY IN THE POST-REFORM PERIOD (1860s - 1914)
qindustrial revolution in Russia (1830s - 1880s): stimulus for text. industry (the role of peasants! Centers - Moscow, Ivanovo)
The sprouts of the capitalist system Industry: A) The growth of manufactories with the use of hired labor B) The emergence of factories Agriculture: A) From natural it becomes more and more commodity
B) Dissemination of agronomic literature, the appearance of exhibitions, an increase in the number of agrarian societies C) Stratification of the peasantry Trade and finance: A) Development of domestic trade B) Growth of foreign trade (main trade partner - England) B) Growth of joint-stock companies (Russian-American joint-stock company - the first )
Feature! The initial accumulation and development of bourgeois relations in Russia in the 1st half. XIX century. happened in conditions of serfdom
30s - 40s XIX century v. The industrial revolution is coming to an end in England v. In Russia, the industrial revolution begins and ends in the 80s. 19th century
ü The technical side predominates, and the social (the emergence of new layers - the industrial bourgeoisie and the proletariat) will declare itself about the proletariat on the most scale - in the post-reform period
The results of the industrial revolution § Growth in the volume of domestic and foreign trade § Growth in the number of cities and the number of urban population § Fairs are being transformed into commodity exchanges
§ The flow of merchant capital into industry is accelerating § The nature of imports is changing: from consumer goods to industrial goods - machinery and cotton
CRIMEAN WAR (1853 -56) catalyst for the industrial development of Russia in a market form ABOLITION OF CASTLE LAW (1861) + OTHER GREAT REFORMS OF ALEXANDER II (1860s - 1870s) stimulus for the development of capitalism
Priorities of Russia's economic development (2nd half of the 19th - early 20th centuries): FORMATION OF CREDIT INFRASTRUCTURE: Ø State Bank (1860): to finance commercial and industrial enterprises and support private banks‼ the first joint-stock commercial banks in Russia - Ø St. -Petersburg Private Commercial Bank (1864 -1917); Ø Saint Petersburg International Commercial Bank (1869 -1917) q
Priorities of the economic development of Russia (2nd half of the 19th - early 20th centuries): q FORMATION OF TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE (construction of railways): ü 1868 -72 - "railway fever" (grunders) Great Siberian Railway (Transsib 1890 - e years.; by the beginning of the twentieth century. - 1st place in Europe in terms of annual growth of railways
Characteristic features of the development of the Russian economy in the 2nd half. X - IX beginning. XX centuries : q rapid growth of heavy industry (metallurgy, machine and steam locomotive building) q noticeable role of foreign capital (Germany, France, England, etc.) As the Russian economy grew, the country's dependence on foreign capital was noticeably weakening ...
Factors of Russia's attractiveness for foreign capital in the 2nd half. XX century. : I rich natural resources Ø cheap labor Ø lack of competition Ø stabilization of the financial system (monetary reform of 1897) Ø the possibility of obtaining large profits in a short time
Russia in the post-reform period is the main, but not a priority branch of the country: features Preservation of feudal remnants Agriculture The predominance of an extensive path of development features Penetration of capitalist relations
N. H. Bunge Minister of Finance - 1881-1886 Politics in the peasant issue Ø Transfer of peasants to the ransom and lower redemption payments (1881) by 1 ruble Ø Establishment of the Peasant Land Bank (1882): benefits for the purchase and lease of land Ø Abolition of the poll tax (1882 -1887)
Work issue Ø The emergence of the most advanced factory legislation at that time (1882) Ø Restriction of the work of minors at enterprises (1882). Prohibition of labor for children under 12 years of age. 8-hour working day for 12-15 year olds Ø No night work for women and teenagers
Law q. Limit the amount of the fine q. A fund for the payment of benefits to workers was formed from the monetary claims from the workers. Paybooks with employment conditions introduced q. Severe liability for participation in strikes was envisaged
I. A. Vyshnegradskiy Minister of Finance - 1887-1892 § Increased indirect taxes and expanded taxation § Subordination of private railways to the state § Achieved ruble strengthening and stabilization of the financial system
Reforms of S. Yu. Witte 1894 - the phased introduction of the state monopoly on the sale of alcohol (which will give ¼ budget revenues in the period 1894-1899) 1897 - monetary reform: the establishment of a gold equivalent and the introduction of convertibility of bank notes due to the accumulation of sufficient gold reserves 1903 - completed the construction of the Great Siberian Railway (Transsib) (the way from Moscow to Vladivostok - 15 days)
Reforms of S. Yu. Witte 1902 - the establishment of the "Special meeting on the needs of the agricultural industry" * collection of materials on the state of agriculture in Russia; * prerequisites for the Stolypin agrarian reform - ü the idea of \u200b\u200bfreeing the peasant from the power of the community, ü development of private peasant property, ü agrarian entrepreneurship
The transition to an industrial system of economy took place during the industrial revolution (industrial revolution), which meant a radical restructuring of production. From a technical point of view, the industrial revolution represents a transition from manual to mechanized labor, from an organizational point of view, the creation of factories instead of manufactures that used machine systems. The industrial revolution had major economic social consequences: the ratio between agriculture and industry changed in favor of the latter; branches of heavy industry and new types of transport developed at a faster pace; capitalist forms of organizing agrarian production, trade, the monetary sphere, and the tax system were developed. The class structure of capitalist society took shape more clearly. Industrial workers came to the fore from among the persons of hired labor. Industrialists stood out from the diverse strata of the bourgeoisie, the opposition of these social groups became a determining factor in the political development of capitalist states.
The industrial revolution took place in all countries that embarked on the capitalist path of development. However, it had both general and specific prerequisites associated with the historical, economic, political, social, cultural and psychological characteristics of various societies. The transition to industrial capitalism(industrial system) was carried out in a variety of ways: revolutionary(England, France), reformist(Germany, Russia), immigrants (USA), revolutionary reformist(Japan).
5.1. The "revolutionary" path of the formation of industrial capitalism
5.1.1. Industrial capitalism in England
Preconditions for the Industrial Revolution. England is the first country to experience an industrial revolution. It began in the last third of the 18th century. and ended in the first third of the XIX century.
The political prerequisites for the industrial revolution were formed as a result bourgeois revolution (1640-1688). The new system of political power provided (through parliament, the cabinet of ministers) access to public administration for representatives of capital, which made it possible to direct the economic policy of the state to create the conditions necessary for the further development of capitalist forms of management that took shape during the period of initial capital accumulation.
The activities of the government primarily contributed to the process of capitalist transformations in the main branch of the country's economy - agriculture. According to the acts adopted during the revolution, large land holdings were transformed into full bourgeois property, freed from feudal obligations in relation to the state. The government, having concentrated in its hands about half of the country's land, confiscated from the king and his supporters, redistributed land property in favor of the new nobility and the bourgeoisie, selling it in large plots; replenished the state treasury with funds received on the security of land property.
Parliament, by allowing landowners to divide the communal lands, contributed to the bourgeois mobilization of land ownership. For 1760-1801 compared with the period 1700-1740s. the area of \u200b\u200bfenced land has increased 10 times.
The universal fencing bill passed in 1801 led to the almost complete disappearance of independent peasant landlords. The landowning of the English peasantry and the formation of large bourgeois landed property, which took place with the support of the state, contributed to the further development of the English farming system. Landlords - large landowners - leased land to farmers. Large farmers rented land for a long period (usually 99 years), their farms were capitalist agrarian enterprises, in which hired labor was used on a large scale, improved tools were used, and advanced agricultural techniques were used.
To encourage the development of farms, primarily grain, the government introduced high duties on the import of bread, livestock, meat (1660), established premiums for the export of bread (1689), adopted settled lawto provide agriculture with labor. According to him, agricultural workers were forbidden to leave the parishes where they worked for hire; with a surplus of labor, the parish authorities could expel workers to other areas.
The development of the farming system, the inflow of capital from the colonies contributed to a significant rise in agricultural production at the end of the 18th century. As a result of the expansion of sown areas under wheat, an increase in its yield, England in the XVIII century. exported up to 20% of the grown grain. The growth in agricultural production provided the population's needs for food, and industry - for raw materials.
The rural domestic industry associated with agriculture disappeared along with the "feudal" peasantry. The peasants bought food, clothing, and the farmers also bought agricultural implements, agricultural implements, mineral fertilizers, and building materials. As incomes grew, farmers accumulated free cash that could be invested in industry. The capital market also received a certain portion of the land rent received by large landowners. The labor market necessary for the development of industry was replenished at the expense of the peasants who were deprived of their land ownership. The development of capitalist agriculture, accelerated by the bourgeois revolution, was the most important prerequisite for the industrial revolution.
The decisive role in preparing the conditions necessary for industrialization was played by the manufacture, which prepared the technical, organizational and financial conditions for the transition to the Factory Industry.
Manufacturing division of labor contributed to the division of production processes into automatically repeating ° operations, which were performed by specialized workers, differentiation and simplification of the tools used. Manufacturing has brought up entire generations of the British, who have adapted to work in the mode of hired labor, and developed the principles of production management. It trained skilled workers who brought significant profits to business owners. These profits, in turn, were the financial prerequisite for the creation of large, capital-intensive industries.
By setting high prices for industrial products, an inflow of capital into the industrial sector of the economy was ensured and business activity was stimulated.
In the XVIII century. the manufacturing industry of England was flourishing. The priority branch was cloth making, which worked on its own raw materials (it was forbidden to export wool). According to some sources, during this period, the interests of 20% of the country's population were associated with the cloth industry.
There was also a revival in shipbuilding, production in traditional industries increased - soap making, the manufacture of gunpowder, guns, paper, saltpeter, sugar, coal mining, etc., the development of the cotton industry began.
The growth of industrial production met the needs of the domestic market and allowed to expand export volumes. English manufactured goods were of high quality, which made them competitive in the world market. The main export item was cloth, which constituted in the 1700-1770s. 25-30% export. England supplied the constantly belligerent Europe with standardized products: fabrics of a certain type and color necessary for uniforms, boots, buttons, ammunition, rifles, bayonets. The expansion of markets for manufactured goods was facilitated by the colonial expansion of England.
English merchants concentrated in their hands all the flows of goods from the colonies. London increasingly turned into a kind of warehouse for colonial goods. The possibility of importing cheap raw materials from the colonies (cotton, sugar, indigo) had a beneficial effect on the development of the national industry. Having monopolized the sale of colonial goods in Europe, English merchants, determining their prices, received superprofits. Colonial trade was one of the most important sources of replenishment of the capital market in the country.
The development of various sectors of the economy, as well as government needs, caused the need for a loan. In 1694, the Bank of England was created, which received a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in exchange for providing new loans to the government. The bank also had the rights to conduct other operations, such as accounting for bills. The extensive development of the loan system was of great importance for industrialization. It was loans that contributed to the development of operations with securities, the stock market, the formation of various groups of entrepreneurs and specialists in the credit, financial, and monetary spheres.
In the course of the bourgeois revolution, the tax policy of the state changed. Indirect taxes were imposed on consumer goods. In 1689, a land tax was introduced, which was imposed on all categories of landowners.
The most important prerequisite for the coup was the transformation of England in the XVIII century. into a huge colonial power. The exploitation of the colonies in India, North America, and other parts of the world expanded the raw material and financial base of British industry and provided it with sales markets. In England itself there were reserves of iron and coal, raw materials for the cloth industry; favorable geographical position and natural conditions - many rivers, rugged coastline created opportunities for stable economic communications before the advent of railway transport.
A necessary condition for the transition of industry to a new technical base was the acquisition of new scientific and technical knowledge. After the revolution in England, the natural sciences began to rise. In order to coordinate scientific research, academies and scientific societies were created. One of the first was “ Royal Society»(London), which began its activity in the 60s of the XVII century. It included Newton, Boyle, Hooke, and others. Mathematics and mechanics received the greatest development, providing the necessary theoretical developments for the practical creation of machine technology and the implementation of an industrial revolution.
The industrial revolution in technical terms was a complex, long-term process of scientific discoveries, inventions, the introduction of various mechanisms and machines into production.
The first machines appeared in the cotton industry. This industry was relatively young, more receptive to progressive endeavors. Its development was more influenced by market factors. On the one hand, it was not constrained by strict government regulations, on the other hand, it did not enjoy broad government privileges. The old traditional branches of English industry were under comprehensive government tutelage. In cloth-making, for example, parliamentary laws established the length, weight, width, color of fabric, methods of its manufacture, sales procedure, prohibited the import of similar foreign products, the export of raw materials. During the formation of the national industry, such government measures were necessary; in the second half of the XVIII century. they began to exert a restraining influence, as they hindered the introduction of technical innovations, the manifestation of economic initiative, and contradicted the principles of free competition.
Cotton fabrics, which enjoyed a steadily growing mass demand due to their relative cheapness and wide application possibilities, were imported mainly from India, China, and Persia. The English chintz was not of high quality. Worried about the growing demand for cotton products, the owners of cloth shops secured the passage of the law (1700) banning their import, solving the problem of competition with traditional force. Entrepreneurs operating in the cotton industry, on the one hand, benefited from this law, getting rid of foreign competitors, on the other hand, they were forced to solve the problems of a competitive struggle with English clothiers.
Manufacturers of cloth, possessing a monopoly position in England and abroad, did not seek to improve production, expand the range, and lower prices for products. In order to squeeze the cloth makers, the owners of the cotton factories had to organize the mass production of high-quality cheap fabrics. The market dictated the need for rational behavior, sharply raising the question of the need to introduce technical innovations in cotton production. Ultimately, the gains were on the side of the cotton manufacturers, who were the first to overcome the economic limitations of the manufacturing system and take advantage of machine technology, to turn the cotton industry into the leading branch of British production.
The technical revolution in the cotton industry began with the fact that the English mechanic Kay in 1733 invented an original mechanical device - flying shuttle, which made it possible to double the productivity of the weaver. Its wide spread led to a lag in spinning production, forcing entrepreneurs working in this area to intensify their efforts to introduce new technology into spinning. The mechanism of material stimulation of technical progress was used. In 1761, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts and Industry issued a proclamation promising significant rewards for the creation of a spinning machine. The results exceeded all expectations: appeared in 1765. mechanical spinning wheel(known as Jenny) made it possible to replace the labor of 16-18 spinners. Established in 1779 mule machineallowed to produce high quality yarn. Invented in 1785 loommade it possible to replace the labor of 40 weavers.
The main result of the technical revolution in the cotton industry was the creation of machines, the use of which solved the fundamental issues of mechanization of spinning and weaving. Further movement of technical progress in the industry followed the path of their improvement.
The active process of mechanization of the cotton industry in the 60-80s. XVIII century stimulated technical progress in other industries. Mechanization spread primarily to related industries - cloth, woolen, paper, printing. The expansion of the scope of application of machines required the technical reconstruction of the energy and metallurgical base, the creation of mechanical engineering. The use of the force of falling water as a source of energy slowed down the industrialization process, since the location of mechanized industry was limited to areas that had water resources, the key issue of the technical revolution was the creation of in 1784 a universal steam engine, which could be used in all large industries. His invention contributed to the expansion of the territorial boundaries of their location, the mechanization of water transport, the creation of completely new types of transport - steamship and rail. Steam engines up to the end of the XIX century. remained the energy base of the country's economy.
The bottleneck of the industrial revolution was metallurgy. Demand for its products increased, but metal production declined. The protracted crisis of this industry was explained by the fact that charcoal was used in the process of smelting the metal, the prices of which increased as the huge forests were cut down, while the import of timber was expensive. Pig iron production became low-profit and sharply declined; 60% of the demand for metal was met by import from Russia and Sweden. Technological progress in this industry was hampered by the complexity of the transition to a new fuel - coal. In 1735, the entrepreneur Derby succeeded, using coal as a fuel, to obtain a pure, free metal by adding quicklime to the iron ore. As the demand for metal grew, this method was widely used. Invention puddling oven(1784) made it possible to obtain high-quality iron from cast iron. New technologies helped to overcome the long crisis in metallurgy and get rid of the beginning of the XIX century. from the import of metal. In a relatively short period (1788-1804), the production of pig iron increased threefold. Changes in metallurgy led to the development of the coal industry.
The manufacture of machines at manufactories did not allow meeting the growing demand for them. They were expensive and of poor quality. Economic practice required the mechanization of machine production. Technological progress in this area was expressed in the creation of metalworking equipment; in 1798 was invented lathe, then constructed drilling, milling machines... Thus, the technical base of a new branch of industry - machine-building was formed.
During the industrial revolution, transition to factory formorganizations. The use of water-powered machines in spinning production facilitated the use of machines that could only be used in special production facilities - factories. First spinning millwas built Arkwright in 1769in 1790 there were already 150 spinning mills in England. The massive construction of weaving mills dates back to the 20-30s of the 19th century.
The organization of large-scale machine production in the cotton industry caused a sharp increase in output. For the period 1780-1820. the production of cotton products increased 16 times. From the end of the XVIII century. factories were created on the basis of steam power in many industries. Even in the printing house of the Times newspaper, which was already popular at that time in a mass publication, in 1814 it was established steam printing press, which allowed to increase the issue of the newspaper from 400 to 1,100 copies per hour.
The industrial revolution began in the first third of the 19th century. in the final stage - the creation of a fundamentally new type of transport that corresponded to the industrial structure of industrial production.
The steam engine first found application in water transport. The first steamer appeared in England in 1811.The first railway was built in 1825... The locomotive developed a speed of up to 12 km / h. Opening of a railway line of economic importance(from the major port of Liverpool to the center of Manchester's cotton industry) took place in 1829... The construction of railways, which gained momentum in the 40s of the 19th century, caused a sharp demand for the products of the heavy industries. It became one of the leading factors in the powerful economic recovery that followed the industrial revolution. The use of new vehicles made it possible to speed up the circulation of goods, reduce the cost of their transportation, and contributed to the development of domestic and foreign markets.
Changes in the structure of the economy of England... As a result of the industrial revolution and the subsequent industrial upsurge of the 1850-1870s. the structure of the economy of England has radically changed. From an agrarian country, it turned into a powerful industrial power. In 1870, industry (including construction) concentrated about 50% of the country's labor resources; 86% of the population of England lived in cities and workers' settlements. The intensive process of urbanization was associated with the rapid growth of new industrial centers in the north of the country (Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, Leeds, etc.).
From the second half of the XIX century. the most dynamic sector of the economy was becoming heavy industry, which by 1860 caught up with light industry in terms of growth. In the next decade, the growth in production in the heavy industry amounted to 9.3%, light industry - 6.7%. A powerful impetus for the acceleration of the development of heavy industry was the growth in demand for a variety of equipment from European countries and the United States, where an industrial revolution was taking place at that time. Heavy industry, which previously worked for the domestic market, began to focus on exports, which grew at a faster pace than the increase in production.
However, the dominant industry until the early XX century. there remained a textile industry, in which cotton production provided 1/3 of the value of British exports (1870).
The new, industrial type of production that was formed in England as a result of the industrial revolution ensured the release of competitive products, the scale of which far exceeded the capacity of the domestic market. The country was turning into an economic leader, producing 1/3 of the world industrial output, giving more than ½ of the world production of cotton products, metal, coal (inferior in population to all capitalist states).
In these conditions state economic policy based on protectionist principles constrained free enterprise... In 1823-1827. the most radical members of the government began to develop principles of free trade policy... Additional cash receipts, achieved thanks to good harvests, increased entrepreneurship, made it possible to pay off part of the public debt and reduce customs duties on raw materials and some finished products from 50 to 20%.
An important role in building this policy was played by principles of reciprocityin relations with foreign states. The softening of the Navigation Act affected a number of countries that received benefits when using their fleet in trade with the British Empire. The introduction of an income tax on the rich in 1842 made it possible to increase revenues to the treasury, which contributed to the exemption of 430 types of goods imported into England from customs duties (in 1842-1845).
The development of the new policy took place in the context of the most acute struggle between protectionists and supporters of free trade. He devoted his parliamentary activities to upholding the principles of economic liberalism in 1819-1823. the great English economist D. Ricardo. Agrarian protectionism was a serious obstacle to free trade. In 1814, in connection with the conclusion of a short-term peace, a flow of foreign grain poured into England, causing a decrease in domestic prices for bread by 1/3, which led to a decrease in land rent. In response to this, large landowners obtained from parliament the abolition of export duties on grain, the adoption in 1815 of a law according to which the import of grain was allowed only if extremely high prices were set on the domestic market.
The bread laws, providing large landowners with an increase in income, contradicted the interests of the rest of the population. The restriction on the import of grain, firstly, hampered the development of foreign trade, since customs duties were increased on goods exported by Britain; secondly, it contributed to the maintenance of high prices for bread inside the country, which caused an increase in prices for other goods, both agricultural and industrial. Entrepreneurs were forced to pay higher money wages to their workers. Therefore, in England during the entire first half of the XIX century. there was a growing movement that united various strata of the population - producers, consumers, persons of hired labor, entrepreneurs - directed against the grain laws; special public organizations were created - the League for the Struggle Against the Grain Laws, associations against the grain laws in industrial centers, etc.
The critical situation in the country in 1845 - crop failure and, as a result, famine - forced the parliament to abolish the grain legislation. This significant event, which contemporaries, supporters of free trade, characterized as the most significant reform in the history of England, was followed by the cancellation (1849) of the Navigation Act, which opened English ports to ships of all countries.
In the middleXIX in. All duties on raw materials and semi-finished products were abolished, the taxation rate for finished goods was significantly reduced, which made it possible for England to obtain from many countries a corresponding reduction in duties on its own goods and to conclude on this basis in the 1860s trade agreements on the principles of mutually favored.
Under the pressure of the industrial bourgeoisie, which was coming into force, which came out in defense of free trade, more profitable for it, the state was forced to agree to restrictions on the monopoly rights of colonial trading companies... In 1833, the largest of them, the East Indies, lost all trade privileges, and in 1858 it was liquidated.
The transition to free trade has had a multilateral impact on the country's economy. The competitiveness of British goods increased due to the decrease in the cost of raw materials, and the opportunities for the sale of industrial products expanded. England has become the center of world trade. Its share in world trade in 1870 was 37.3%.
Customs "disarmament" has put the agricultural sector in conditions of free competition with foreign agricultural producers. In this regard, progressive shifts began to take place in the grain economy of England, expressed in mechanization (the use of a steam plow, a reaper, etc.), land reclamation, chemicalization (the use of artificial fertilizers), which ultimately contributed to a sharp reduction in employment in this area, increase in labor productivity, increase in grain yield.
The world agrarian crisis of the 70-90s. XIX century had a negative impact on the country's grain economy. In the face of increased competition with cheap bread (North American, Australian, Russian), grain production became ineffective. In agriculture, structural restructuring began, which was expressed in the transition to intensive livestock and animal husbandry, the production of expensive meat and dairy products, poultry farming, and grain imports.
Market infrastructure development... The establishment in England of the economic system of industrial capitalism included changes in the organization of various markets, money circulation, and the tax system.
The beginning of the organization of the labor market was laid by the creation of the city bodies in the second half of the 19th century. self-government bureauwhere job seekers and employers could go. Labor exchange, which coordinated the labor market throughout the country, was formed at the beginning of the XX century.
A further process of specialization took place in the organization of product markets. Exchanges were losing their universal character. Each of them disintegrated into specialized exchange unionsoperating in the largest industrial and shopping centers. In London, they carried out wholesale trade in grain, metals, furs; in Liverpool - grain, food, cotton. The specialization process also covered stock exchanges. For example, securities trades were split between two London stock exchanges. One of them was intended for transactions with bills of exchange, government securities, the other - with other types of securities. All types of British stock exchanges were private business institutions, their charters lacked provisions on relations of a public-legal nature with the state. The activities of the exchanges were subject to certain government control only to the same extent as the activities of any unions of individuals created to achieve legal goals.English exchanges were organized as partnerships,the personal qualities of the members of the exchange community were given great importance. The London Stock Exchange, for example, had very strict rules that practically excluded the financial insecurity of its members.
The rapid development of large-scale industrial production, the construction of railways, trade and the colonial expansion of England presented a constantly growing demand for capital, which, in turn, dictated the need to find new ways and forms of organizing banking.
In 1833 it was allowed to organize deposit joint-stock banks(without the right to issue banknotes) in London. The consequence of the adoption of this resolution was the creation of a significant number of medium and larger joint-stock deposit banks. The first was organized in 1834 in London.
The next step in the organization of the monetary system was the act of R. Pill (1844), which determined rules of activity of the Central Bankwhich was assigned the privilege of issuing banknotes throughout the country... Thus, the centralization of the issue business was carried out. The issue of banknotes was carried out by a special Issue Department in the amount secured by government bonds. Additional issue was allowed by the government only on condition of cash backing.
Significant amounts of share capital and reserves put the Bank of England at the head of the English credit system. Its reserves were replenished primarily by deposits of private joint-stock banks, as well as private banking houses.
As a result of the economic crises of 1838, 1839, 1847. Many private banks failed, so broad sections of the population began to entrust their savings, first of all, to the Bank of England, which, being an emission center by its charter, began to perform operations inherent in ordinary deposit banks. Taxes, duties, and other government revenues were transferred to the account of this bank, and all government payments were made through it.
The bank provided (mutually) its free reserves to the government when the treasury expenditures exceeded the available cash, issued treasury tickets for urgent government needs, etc. In addition, this bank carried out financial transactions in some colonial countries and countries dependent on England. He was the bank of the state, the bank of banks, the custodian of the country's gold reserves. The trust in him was limitless. The expression "just like in a bank" referred to this particular credit institution.
Private joint stock banks, the development of which began in the 30s of the XIX century, were divided into metropolitan (with branches), suburban, provincial... An important role, especially in the provinces, continued to play private banking houses.
Capital banks provided loans secured by easily marketable government and other securities, interest on deposits was paid low (or did not pay at all), so the loan they issued was relatively cheap, but was, as a rule, short-term. Suburban banks focused on serving the needs of small depositories, managing the cashier of small industrialists, shopkeepers, retailers, artisans, contractors. The founders of this category of banks were the first to realize that servicing small depositors can bring great success and provide a basis for expanding the deposit business.
Provincial credit institutions were divided into banks operating in areas dominated by agriculture (south, southwest, southeast); banks, whose activities developed in the main industrial districts (northeast, northwest); banking houses. These banks, like the suburban ones, received deposits and savings mainly from the middle class.
It was the provincial credit institutions that played a decisive role in the creation of the factory system in the cotton, woolen, coal industry, provided in the second half of the XIX century. the financial base of the recovery in these industries. Unlike the capital's banks, which provided short-term loans with guaranteed collateral, the provincial banks issued long-term loans to low-income merchants and industrialists for the establishment and expansion of enterprises. Thus, they contributed to the development of economic enterprise of broad strata of the population. The peculiarity of the provincial banks was that they possessed the most reliable information about their customers, were most accurately informed about their lifestyle, abilities, connections (personal and business), financial capabilities, were aware of the current state of their affairs. In accordance with the individual characteristics of their clientele, the provincial bankers set the size and duration of the loans; if necessary, intervened in the affairs of clients, providing assistance with qualified advice and recommendations. This nature of the services of the provincial banks partly replaced them with firm collateral for the loans issued. However, long-term lending operations for depository banks contained elements of risk; major crises have always affected provincial banks in the first place.
The role of metropolitan and large provincial banking houses in the credit system declined, their number declined due to the formation of joint stock companies or mergers with them. For example, the number of City banking houses fell from 40 to 13 over the period 1810-1873.
From the second half of the XIX century. due to the constantly progressing division of labor in banking in England, a system of colonial banks was formed, which had a central government in London and branches in the colonies. In addition, a system of credit institutions was developed, the central administration or branch offices of which were located in foreign countries - foreign banks. Within this category of banks, the process of division of labor also took place. Some of them were limited to purely banking operations, transferring to the colonies and foreign states the principles of the organization and activities of British joint-stock banks. Close ties were established between local banks and the English bank, and international turnover was eventually carried out through its intermediary and on the basis of its reserves.
Other banks provided direct assistance to the development of trade relations between England and those countries in the trade centers of which they founded their offices. Banks like these acted as intermediaries between British manufacturers or exporters and their foreign buyers. These banks created a well-functioning mechanism of international trade, which required relatively low costs.
One of the characteristic features of the English economy during the formation of the industrial system was the lack of banking institutions capable of meeting the need for large long-term loans necessary for the massive construction of factories and transport construction. Large joint-stock banks limited their activities to short-term lending operations.
British manufacturers, large traders, as a rule, were wealthy enough and formed the main capital of enterprises from their own free resources. Most of the factories were built by placing their own or family capital in them, with the participation of friends and relatives, partly with the help of merchants, who in this way provided themselves favorable conditions for purchasing the products of the enterprises created, transporting and marketing it. Another part of the industrialists turned to the services of private banks.
There were no mortgage banks in England. The loan needs of agriculture and the construction business were covered to a small extent by the depository banks through personal loans, the rest - by individuals through the mediation of lawyers and notaries.
At the dawn of banking, there was a market in the country in which entrepreneurs and persons offering their free funds for premises entered into direct relations without the intervention of any organization. At the beginning of the XVIII century. a layer of enterprising businessmen was formed, who were engaged in pooling the capital of individuals to create large industrial enterprises or conduct trade operations. At the same time, the circle of people inclined to speculative activity (stock brokers, financiers, etc.), ready to provide their free resources to these founders, often for irrevocable use, expanded. Of these free relations between the Gründers and the public, carried out right on the street or in coffee houses, during the XVIII century. a new institution was formed - the London Stock Exchange.
At the end of the XVIII century. its main operations were transactions with government bonds, as well as the placement of foreign loans. Bond rates changed under the influence of various economic and political factors, the game on the rates became the most important source of enrichment for financial leaders. There were still few joint stock companies, transactions with shares of the Bank of England, the East India Company, and other companies constituted an insignificant share of stock exchange operations. During these years, operations began, out of which investment banking subsequently grew.
Wealthy financiers united in small groups, bought all the bonds of the new loan in bulk from the state, and then sold them at retail. The profits from these operations were enormous, albeit fraught with risk, as bonds could suddenly fall. The placement of foreign loans in the English money market, mediation in the field of loans with foreign states, and the trade of foreign bills were traditionally engaged in by private firms.
A special position in the London money market was occupied by the Rothschild banking house, founded in 1804, which carried out operations in international arbitration, taking over and placing foreign loans, accounting for foreign bills. Other banking houses were mainly involved in intermediating foreign trade lending.
After 1815, England increasingly turned into a capital market for the whole world. Many European countries and the USA resorted to British loans. The London Stock Exchange became the place where funds could be found for every promising enterprise, half of the world met its capital needs here.
Monetary economy, financial system... The intensive development of the country's capitalist economy required stable money circulation, which was possible at that time on the basis of the gold standard - a monetary system in which gold played the role of a universal equivalent. Gold coins were in circulation, as well as paper money, which was exchanged for gold at a fixed rate. Disorder of the country's monetary system at the end of the XVIII - beginning of the XIX century. led to the suspension of the exchange of banknotes of the Bank of England for gold (1797). Forced additional issues of banknotes during the Napoleonic wars and the continental blockade led to their sharp depreciation - by 1813 the difference between banknotes and gold reached 25%, which was expressed primarily in the growth of prices for essential goods, deepening the economic difficulties of wartime.
After the Napoleonic Wars, in 1816-1821, the exchange of banknotes for gold was gradually restored in England. The law confirmed the content of the pound sterling at 7.323 g of pure gold. Money from other metals (shillings and pence), paper money was freely exchanged for gold at par by the central bank, which kept the national reserves of gold. The bank was obliged to ensure the uninterrupted exchange of banknotes always have gold not less than a certain fraction of the amount of banknotes issued by it.
The recognition of gold as the only form of world money was legally formalized by the decision of an international conference in Paris in 1867. The centralized gold reserves of states became the main reserves of world money, international means of payment. All central banks' foreign exchange reserves were denominated in pounds sterling and held in London banks. Free convertibility of currencies was carried out at market rates that almost did not deviate from parities, which were stable ratios that linked the pound sterling with the currencies of other countries. England has become the center of the international monetary system.
Establishment gold standard systemscontributed to the further economic progress of the country. London, being a world trade and financial center, imposed the "rules of the gold standard game" on other countries. Central banks, led by the English, maintained and guarded the international gold standard, a system that gave them extraordinary power and influence. Under the influence of the international gold standard, the transition to a monetary system based on gold monometallism.
The financial system of England in the period under review was in a tense state due to the enormous expenditures of the state on the waging of wars and colonial conquests. The rise in prices for essential goods, taxes at a constant level of wages of hired workers doomed the bulk of the population to a miserable existence.
The income tax, imposed under extreme wartime conditions, was abolished during short peace breaks. During the wars, the circle of people covered by the so-called Poor Law... More and more people fell into this category, many of whom were speculating on public charity. Help was provided at home, and its size was determined in accordance with the number of children. The officially registered poor man became a kind of official, freed from the need to work, whose income depended on the number of children.The main burden of paying this tax fell on smallholders, mainly farmers, who gave half of their income to support the poor. In some localities, farmers preferred to abandon their farms, and there were frequent violent clashes between owners and the official poor; begging, accompanied by theft, became a real disaster. In 1834 was adopted Workhouses Act, which made it possible to cut the costs of this item by half over the next three years.
However, the main source of government tax revenues remained indirect taxes, which affected the poor to a greater extent.
Social changes... The transformations in the English economy were accompanied by the transformation of the social sphere. In the course of the industrial revolution, a new elite was born, interested in the modernization of the industry. Its composition expanded due to the rapidly growing layer of bankers, founders of large joint-stock banks, and all kinds of intermediaries. The emergence of a new class of industrialists and bankers ran up against the resistance of older and firmly rooted capitalist groupings from the trade and money environment. Representatives of the new elite throughout the entire period of industrial capitalism waged a fierce struggle, gradually ousting the old one, for leadership in the country's economic and political life.
The formation of the class of industrial workers continued, which lay ahead of a long road of gaining economic, political and civil rights.
The manufacturers feverishly increased their production. The drop in demand for British manufactured goods caused by the continental blockade was compensated by the expansion of markets in the newly conquered colonies. In addition, the armies of all the belligerent states needed British manufactured goods. They were smuggled even with France. Exports of manufactured goods from England in 1800-1861 increased by more than 3.6 times.
Industrialists have cut wages to increase their income. The country's labor market was overcrowded. The growth of the machinery park led to the release of a significant amount of human labor, the possibility of using low-paid female and child labor in a number of industries. Unemployment became an indispensable companion of technological progress. The increase in population was not restrained, as in continental Europe, by military losses (mainly mercenaries and Irish fought in the British army). Factory owners used favorable conditions: for the period from 1799 to 1808 real wages fell by 17%, in 1809-1818. - by 28%.
Large landowners and farmers also rushed to cash in on the war. The import of foreign grain was difficult, which allowed them to raise the price of bread, which became the staple food for the workers. The land has never brought such income. Traders, in turn, raised the prices of basic industrial goods, fearing an even greater fall in the exchange rate of paper money. Financiers have made huge fortunes by dealing with government bonds.
The state supported this artificially created wealth and unequal distribution. During the period of peaceful respite, the import of grain from the continent and from North America was facilitated, prices for it decreased. However, the imported bread was immediately imposed with significant duties, which immediately sharply raised prices for it. The arbitrariness of the manufacturers in setting the level of wages was facilitated by the government's repressive measures against any form of protest from the workers.
In 1789 was established death penalty for destroying cars... Workers' rallies demanding the legal establishment of minimum wages were brutally suppressed. As a result, England was turned into a country of wealth and dire poverty.
The establishment of peace did not bring the expected influx of orders from abroad. The governments of all countries supported the revival of the domestic industry with protective duties. British products ran into customs barriers everywhere. Under these conditions, the manufacturers have lowered wages to a minimum. In the 20s. XIX century wages were only 80% of their level in 1780. The workers were subject to increasing arbitrariness by the owners of industrial enterprises. Often, instead of wages, which were barely enough for bread, they were given overpriced manufactured goods.
Severe repression prevented workers from joining unions to raise wages and protect the right to rest. In 1833 the government announced every labor union by illegal conspiratorial society... In 1834, a law on workhouses was passed, according to which all poor people who applied for help were placed in workhouses, which became barracks or prison for the poor. Along with poor food, humiliating living conditions, their inhabitants were sent to work at the striking enterprises. Demonstrations were banned in 1838... However, it was the 30s of the XIX century. became the initial period of the most important democratic transformations that developed later. Electoral reform was carried out in 1832, as a result of which the middle strata (urban and rural bourgeoisie) gained access to parliamentary elections.
In 1833-1839. a series of laws was adopted, which laid the foundation for the regulation of social relations. These included laws on the reduction of the working day for children and adolescents, the abolition of slavery in the English colonies... Was held municipal reform, aimed at the elimination of the feudal principles of self-government of cities, began transformations in the system of public education. In the 1830s. issued chartist movement, most firmly and consistently defended the political rights of workers. In the 1840s. were introduced labor protection laws.
In the conditions of the industrial boom in the 1850s and 1870s, thanks to the growth of wages, the number of poor people who demanded state aid decreased by ⅓. Under pressure from trade unions, a law on electoral reform was passed in 1867, which lowered the property qualification, which increased the number of voters threefold in cities and ⅓ in rural areas.
In 1872 was adopted Compulsory Primary Education Act... In addition, the legislation established a 12-hour working day for adults in the mining industry (1860), and factory legislation extended to all industrial enterprises with 50 or more workers (1867). Was held army reform,accepted secret casting law, which was an important step towards the democratization of the electoral system.
The transition to an industrial system of economy was carried out during the industrial revolution (industrial revolution), which meant a radical restructuring of production. From a technical point of view, the industrial revolution represents a transition from manual labor to mechanized labor, from an organizational point of view, the creation of factories instead of manufactories that used machine systems. The industrial revolution had the most important economic and social consequences: the ratio between agriculture and industry changed in favor of the latter, the branches of heavy industry and new types of transport developed at a faster pace, capitalist forms of organization of agricultural production, trade, the monetary sphere, and the tax system were developed. The class structure of capitalist society took shape more clearly. Industrial workers came to the fore from among the persons of hired labor. Industrialists emerged from the diverse strata of the bourgeoisie; the opposition of these social groups became a determining factor in the political development of capitalist states.
The industrial revolution took place in all countries that embarked on the capitalist path of development. However, it had both general and specific prerequisites associated with the historical, economic, political, social, cultural and psychological characteristics of various societies.The transition to industrial capitalism (industrial system) was carried out in various ways: revolutionary (England, France), reformist (Germany , Russia), resettlement (USA), revolutionary reformist (Japan).
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More on the topic Chapter 6. FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDUSTRIAL ECONOMIC SYSTEM. INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM AND ITS MAIN OPTIONS:
- 1.1. The concept of the analysis of economic activity, the history of its formation and development
- 6.1. The "revolutionary" path of the formation of industrial capitalism
- Chapter 4. PREREQUISITES FOR THE FORMATION OF A NEW MODEL OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: RENAISSANCE, REFORMATION, GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES
- 6.2. "Reform" way of the formation of industrial capitalism. Germany
- CHAPTER 3. ECONOMICALLY SECURE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ECONOMIC COMPLEX AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE INDUSTRIAL POLICY OF THE REGION
- 6.4. The "revolutionary-reformist" path of the formation of industrial capitalism. Japan
- 28. The world economy in 1914-1959. The rise of the system of regulated capitalism
- 1. The essence of state regulation of the economy and its place in the economic mechanism of modern capitalism
- Chapter 7. EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE XIX - EARLY XX CENTURY
Development options for industrial capitalism
Literature
From the general list of references Nos: 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 19, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 36 , 40, 42, 44, 46.
Self-test questions
1. What were the prerequisites for the industrial revolution in England?
2. Name the main stages of the "classical", English scheme of the industrial revolution.
3. Describe the most important consequences of the industrial revolution in England.
4. Why did the prerequisites for an industrial revolution (industrial revolution) ripen in France later than in England?
5. Name the main differences between the industrial revolution in France and England.
6. Describe the most important consequences of the industrial revolution in France.
7. Expand the specifics of the prerequisites of the industrial revolution in Germany.
8. Name the stages and describe the features of the industrial revolution in Germany.
9.Explain the role of the reforms of the 60-70s of the XIX century. in the economic development of Russia.
10. What were the fundamental differences between the industrial revolution in Russia?
11. Give a description of the most important bourgeois reforms carried out in Japan in the 60s and 70s. XIX century.
12. Identify the features of the industrial revolution in Japan and its main stages.
13. What is paternalism?
14. What were the features of the formation of the prerequisites for the industrial revolution in the United States?
15. Name the main stages and specific features of the industrial revolution in the United States.
1. Make a table confirming the leadership of England in the world economy during the period of industrial capitalism.
2. Prepare an essay on the topic "Comparative analysis of the formation and development of banking systems in France, England, Germany, Russia, Japan."
4. Prepare a report on the topic: “The role of the state in the formation of the industrial system in Western Europe, Russia, Japan?
4. Conduct a comparative economic analysis of various models of industrial capitalism according to the given (in the lecture) parameters. Drawing up an appropriate table.
5. Graphically display the relationship between the level of development of railway construction and the rate of economic growth during the period of industrialization for the countries included in the course of study.
6. Conduct a comparative analysis of the English and American farming systems, the Prussian path of development of capitalism in agriculture.
Topic 6. Evolution of industrial capitalism at the end of Х1Х - beginning
XX century. monopolization of the economy
Literature
From the general list of references Nos: 1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 11, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 26, 27, 28, 36, 44, 46.
Self-test questions
1. Describe the main innovations of the second technological revolution.
2. How is the industrial revolution different from the second technological revolution?
3. Name the criteria by which the organizational forms of monopolies were distinguished.
4. Why was the level of monopolization of the economy the highest in the United States?
5. How did the sectoral structure of economic monopolization differ across countries?
Questions and tasks for independent work.
1. Prepare an essay on the subject of the main directions of scientific and technical innovations of the second technological revolution in the leading capitalist states and Russia.
2. Prepare a report on the topic: "The role of the state in the monopolization of the economy (differences by country)."
3. Conduct a comparative analysis of the state of the Russian economy (at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries) and the economy of one of the leading Western states, based on its results, draw up a diagram or table.
4. Fill in the table showing the balance of power in the world economy on the eve of the First World War.
Topic 7. Formation of the system of macroeconomic regulation
In foreign countries
Literature
From the general list of references Nos: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 24, 42, 45.
Self-test questions
1.How did the balance of power in the world economy change after the Second World War?
2. Describe the causes, manifestations and consequences of the global economic crisis in the late 1920s and early 1930s.
3. What is “regulated capitalism”?
4. Why was the liberal reformist model of regulated capitalism involved in the United States?
5. Identify the features of the English and French versions of the formation of the system of regulated capitalism.
6. What was the specificity of the totalitarian model of regulated capitalism?
Questions and tasks for independent work
1. Make a table showing the balance of power in the world economy after the First World War.
2. Prepare an essay on the topic: "Factors, manifestations, consequences of the prosperity of the US economy in the 1920s."
3. Prepare a report on the topic: “Comparative characteristics of the economic policy of F.D. Roosevelt, Stalin, Hitler in the 1930s. "
4. Make a table reflecting the general features and fundamental differences between the totalitarian version of regulated capitalism and the system of state socialism.