What reforms did Witte briefly. Reform C
It happened in the Russian Empire at the very end of the 19th century, in 1895-1897.
Sergei Yulievich Witte himself considered this reform one of the most significant events in contemporary Russian history. The financial reform is closely connected with the development of the Russian economy at the turn of the two centuries.
Prerequisites
By the end of the 19th century, Russia became one of the largest economic powers. The industrial revolution took place in the country, its scientific and technical potential grew. However, the monetary system was unstable.
In fact, two monetary units operated in the empire: a silver ruble and a credit note (paper ruble), the value of which was set by banks. Over time, more and more credit notes were issued, their production could hardly be controlled. The consequence of this was the depreciation of the paper ruble.
By the time the reform began, the cost of one silver ruble was equal to one and a half paper ones. Therefore, one of the main objectives of the reform was the unification of metal and paper currency, which would stop the process of depreciation.
Most European countries by the end of the century switched to the gold exchange system. In some countries, such as France, a dual - silver-gold currency system was established. In England, the gold currency was actually established at all at the end of the 18th century, and was officially fixed in 1816.
Gold provision was introduced even in Greece, which only recently gained independence from the Ottoman Empire, "got up from its knees" and overcame cultural backwardness from the advanced countries. This means that the time has come to install a similar system in Russia. This was understood by Witte's predecessors as Minister of Finance - Reitern, Bunge and Vyshegradsky. They, in essence, laid the foundation for the reform, Witte only brought it to its natural end.
Witte acted in a more favorable financial environment than his predecessors, which ensured his success. By the beginning of his activity, the gold reserves in the country were impressive and amounted to more than 645 million rubles. In the future, this stock only replenished even more.
Main steps of the reform
What did Witte order to produce? His monetary reform involved the following actions:
- All branches of the State Bank were allowed to buy gold, and some offices and branches were also given the right to make payments in gold coin.
- The gold coin was also allowed to be accepted by all state institutions, including railway transport.
- A single rate for a credit note was established: for a gold semi-imperial - a five-ruble coin - it was necessary to give 7 rubles 40 kopecks in paper currency.
- A 10-ruble imperial and a 5-ruble semi-imperial of the new coinage were recognized as single gold coins. Old coins were also accepted, gradually withdrawn from circulation.
The new coins had a slightly lower gold content than the old coins minted since 1885. The people ironically called them "Matildors" (after Witte's wife) and "Wittekinders". However, the devaluation of the ruble did not cause any serious shocks, although there were concerns about this.
The private banks that existed in Russia also began to accept gold coins. Witte initially decided to introduce a monometallic gold system in the country, and not a bimetallic one, as was the case in France; this option was also considered, but the minister was not satisfied.
In the government, Witte's proposal caused fierce controversy. Realizing that with such a course of affairs, the implementation of the reform would be delayed or even fail, the minister turned directly to the emperor. Nicholas II was interested in Witte's project, and he gave the order to begin its implementation.
Results of the reforms
In general, Witte's reform is assessed positively. Indeed, in a short time, a solid gold backing of the ruble was established in Russia, which significantly strengthened the currency. In 1897, the State Bank already had 1,095 million gold rubles, which was practically equal to the amount of paper rubles circulating in the country.
The strengthening of the ruble led to a further recovery of the economy, as well as to an influx of foreign investment. However, with the onset of the First World War, all gold rubles that had circulation in the empire were liquidated. Some experts saw this as a failure of the reform. However, apparently, this was a consequence of the inefficiency of the world system of monometallism in the new conditions.
Witte was born into a family of Russified Germans on June 17, 1849. He received a good education, graduating in 1870 from Novorossiysk University. Having a degree of Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Sergey Yulievich Witte, due to an acute shortage of funds, was forced to abandon his career in science and start working on the Odessa railway. Starting from the lowest positions, he quickly rose to the position of manager of the southwestern railways. His subsequent career was just as successful. Finance Minister Witte took office in 1892 by right, thanks to outstanding abilities.
S. Yu. Witte's brief biography is impossible without mentioning his economic policy and the reform of the country's financial system, he strove for such a ambitious goal as the industrialization of Russia. This required significant financial outlays. Witte found a very convenient way to replenish the country's budget by introducing a wine monopoly in 1894. He also went to such an unpopular measure among the majority of the population as raising taxes.
Witte's financial reform, carried out in 1897, allowed the free exchange of rubles for gold - the gold standard was introduced. The monetary reform of S. Yu. Witte led to an increase in the inflow of foreign capital into the country. After all, thanks to the reform of the financial sector, it became possible to export gold from the country. But, despite the fact that the attractiveness of Russia in the eyes of foreign companies has grown, the domestic manufacturer was quite reliably protected from competition due to the customs tariff. Witte's consistent policy led to the transformation of the ruble into one of the most stable currencies of that period.
The influence of this, of course, an outstanding person extended to domestic politics. Witte's domestic policy, being quite conservative, made it possible to seriously strengthen the position of the autocracy. In foreign policy, Witte's most important goal was to minimize Japan's influence in the territories of the Far East. The conclusion of the Peace of Portsmouth with Japan in 1905 brought Witte the title of count.
It should be noted that Nicholas 2 was very disposed to his Minister of Finance. However, Witte never used the location of the light. And after he married Matilda Lisanevich with a loud scandal, the rejection of society only intensified. But, nevertheless, Witte found personal happiness with her.
The defeat in the Crimean War of 1853-1856 and the bloody victory in 1876-1878 showed the obvious technical backwardness of Russia.
The Russian government came to understand the need to create a modern large-scale industry in the country at all costs.
The road to capitalism was opened by the reforms of the 1960s and 1970s. In 1892, at the suggestion of Vyshnegradsky, Alexander III appointed Sergei Yulievich Witte as Minister of Finance.
Witte's reform included only four main directions that ensured the industrial upsurge in Russia in the 90s of the XIX century.
The first step was to carry out financial reform, which included a tough tax policy in order to increase state budget revenues.
The most important condition for economic transformation was Witte's monetary reform, which guaranteed the stability and solvency of the ruble. The transition to the gold standard turned the ruble into one of the stable European currencies, which contributed to the development of banking and the expansion of foreign investment.
The second step of the transformation was the consistent industrial policy of the state.
Witte noted that the stability of the monetary system and strong finances are not an end in themselves, nor will they lead to automatic spontaneous development of industry. Significant efforts are needed on the part of the state in order for the country to become an industrial, developed power; thus, the industrial policy to support and develop the national economy predetermined the success of the Witte reform.
The third step was that Witte was able to secure the attraction of large investment funds. Internal resources - loans, borrowed funds - clearly could not cover the need of industry for capital in the conditions of the rise. Therefore, the appeal to foreign capital made it possible to significantly expand the sources of financing. The influx of foreign capital has become a mass phenomenon and almost tripled in the decade of the 1990s. Witte's policy combined openness and protectionism.
The fourth step allowed Witte, as a talented "architect" of the reform, to direct the efforts of all participants in the economic boom - the state, national industrialists, foreign capital - into one direction. Witte ingeniously determined the point of economic growth, found the industry that gave impetus and pulled the entire economy along with it. This industry was the construction of railways. The development of railway transport stimulated the growth, on the one hand, of the extractive industries and metallurgy, on the other hand, it required the development of mechanical engineering, carriage and steam locomotive building. The extensive system of railways, which increased by 22,000 km in one decade, drew the hinterland into the national economic complex, led to regional specialization in agriculture and a greater division of labor in the economy.
As a result of the economic reforms carried out by the SU. Witte, there was not only a strengthening of finance and the ruble, but conditions were created for a rapid industrial upsurge. The policy of accelerated development of industry through the mobilization of domestic resources, attraction of foreign capital, customs protection of domestic industry and encouragement of exports led to an increase in industrial production by 2-3 times in the 1990s. Russia has approached the industrialized countries.
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Reforms S.Yu. Witte
The nineteenth century gave Russia many talented statesmen. One of them was Sergei Witte, a statesman who worked under Alexander II, Alexander III and Nicholas II. Witte managed to be the Minister of Railways and the Minister of Finance, and presided over the Council of Ministers. But most of all, contemporaries and descendants remember the reforms he carried out, which actually brought Russia to a new level of development.
Let us briefly consider what changes Witte initiated during his active work.
Activities as Minister of Finance
During the period between 1892 and 1903, Witte passed several bills that strengthened the economic potential of the country.
- In 1890, the minister established several additional indirect taxes. Without raising direct cash collections from individuals, Witte forced merchants to pay taxes on sugar, tobacco, kerosene and a number of other goods. In addition, now it was required to pay large fees when processing documents in the state. authorities.
- In 1891, a policy of so-called "protectionism" was launched. Duties on the import of foreign goods were raised, as a result, the domestic manufacturer felt more confident.
Witte's monetary reform
This strengthened the Russian economy.
- In 1895, the state declared itself a monopoly in the trade in alcoholic products. All funds from the sale of alcohol went directly to the treasury - and this brought the budget almost 30% additional profit.
- And finally, in 1897, the famous monetary reform was completed, during which the paper currency of the empire received solid gold backing. As a result, the ruble became one of the strongest international currencies, domestic inflation fell, and the flow of foreign investment in Russian enterprises increased.
These reforms are considered the main achievements of Witte, but he is remembered not only by them alone. Before taking the post of Minister of Finance, Witte was in charge of the country's transport communications. In his new position, he continued to pay attention, in particular, to the development of railways. Under him, more than 2.5 thousand kilometers of the railway were built in a year. This contributed to the improvement of transport links throughout the country. The laying of railways spurred the growth of trade, the well-established communication was very useful to Russia during the First World War and subsequent wars.
FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION
State educational institution of higher professional education
Russian State University for the Humanities
Branch in Velikiy Novgorod
SERGEEVA ANNA MIKHAILOVNA
“Reforms by S.Yu. WITTE AND THE RUSSIAN MODEL
OF THE CAPITALIST MODERNIZATION OF SOCIETY"
Control work on Patriotic history
1st year student of group 0610c
Veliky Novgorod 2006
1. Maintaining …………………………………………………………………….. 3
2. Nicholas II and his policy…………………………………………………. 4
3. S.Yu. Witte – short biography…………………………………………….. 5
4. Main achievements ……………………………………………..……………. 7
4.1. Monetary reform…………………………………………………….7
4.2. Trans-Siberian Railway…………………………………………. eight
4.3. Agrarian reform……………………………………………………. eight
4.4. S.Yu. Witte as a diplomat……………………………………………….. 9
5. The labor movement and the State Duma …………………………….12
6. Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….16
7. Literature………………………………………………….……………… 17
Introduction
Each time for the history of Russia was fateful in its own way. However, some periods can be called determined the future life of the people of the country for many years. One of these most important stages of Russian history was the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century; time of development of the revolutionary movement.
Of course, not only representatives of the revolutionary movement were active in the political arena at that time, but also politicians who belonged to the camp opposing the Bolsheviks. Meanwhile, bright and strong historical figures acted on the historical scene at that time, holding various socio-political views, reflecting all the colors of the then rather motley political spectrum. And without knowing these people, it is impossible to understand the deep essence of the processes taking place in the country.
It is impossible to determine one's attitude towards all those who were in the royal environment, the government, pursued the policy of tsarism in the provinces; especially interesting are those people who made a significant contribution to the solution of the main issue for tsarist Russia - the agrarian one. Among the statesmen there were several personalities of a reformist warehouse, who managed to carry out a number of significant socio-economic events and leave a noticeable mark on the history of Russia. Sergey Yulievich Witte (1849-1915), a talented financier, reformer and organizer of the economy, can be attributed to the number of such figures.
NicholasIIand his politics
The last Russian emperor, Nicholas II, upon accession to the throne, announced the continuity of the course of his father, Alexander III, and advised representatives of liberal circles to “leave meaningless dreams.”
Reforms S.Yu. Witte
The coronation of Nicholas II in May 1896 turned into a tragedy. About a million people gathered on the Khodynka field in Moscow with an area of 1 square kilometer to participate in the festive festivities and receive gifts. Unexpected panic led to a pandemonium in which more than three thousand people were injured, of whom almost half died. The Khodynka disaster shocked Moscow, everyone was waiting for the celebrations to be canceled, but everything continued as if nothing had happened, and Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich, the Governor-General of Moscow, received gratitude for "exemplary preparation and holding of celebrations."
Lacking a strong character and public outlook, Nicholas II often fell under the influence of stronger people and could change earlier decisions.
S.Yu. Witte - short biography
S.Yu. Witte was born in Tiflis on June 17, 1849 and was brought up in the family of his grandfather A.M. Fadeev, Privy Councilor, who was in 1841-1846. Saratov governor, and then a member of the management council of the Caucasian governor and manager of the expedition of state property of the Transcaucasian Territory.
He came from little-known Russified Germans who became nobles in 1856 (although he himself promoted a version of hereditary nobility and loyalty to Orthodoxy). Witte's early years were spent in Tiflis and Odessa, where, in 1870, he completed a course of science at the Novorossiysk University in the Faculty of Mathematics with a Ph.D., writing a thesis "On infinitesimal quantities." The young mathematician thought of staying at the university to prepare for a professorship. But the youthful passion for the actress Sokolova distracted him from scientific studies and the preparation of another dissertation on astronomy. In addition, Witte's mother and uncle rebelled against Witte's academic career, saying that "this is not a noble matter." On July 1, 1871, Witte was ranked as an official in the office of the Novorossiysk and Bessarabsk Governor-General, and two years later he was appointed clerk. In the management of the Odessa Railway, where his uncle assigned him to serve, he studied railway business in practice, starting from the lowest levels, having been in the role of a freight service clerk and even an assistant driver, but soon, having taken the position of head of traffic, he turned into a major railway entrepreneur . However, in April 1877, he applied for his dismissal from public service.
After the end of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. when the railway belonged to the treasury, it merged into the private Society of Southwestern Railways. There, Witte got the job of head of the operations department. The new appointment required a move to St. Petersburg. He lived in the capital for about two years. The events of March 1, 1881, which left a noticeable mark on Witte's biography, found him already in Kiev. At this time, Witte was influenced by Slavophile ideas, was fond of theological writings; he became close to the leaders of the "Slavic movement"; as soon as the news of the assassination attempt on Alexander II reached Kiev, Witte wrote to the capital Fadeev and presented the idea of creating a noble conspiratorial organization to protect the emperor and fight the revolutionaries with their own methods. Fadeev picked up this idea in St. Petersburg and, with the help of Vorontsov-Dashkov, created the notorious "Holy Squad". In mid-March 1881, Witte was initiated into its members in St. Petersburg. He was appointed the chief ruler of the squad in the Kiev region. Witte was zealous in the performance of the duties assigned to him by the squad. By her order, he was sent to Paris to organize an assassination attempt on the famous populist revolutionary L.N. Hartman, participated in the literary enterprises of the squad of a provocative nature, in particular, in compiling a brochure published (Kiev, 1882) under the pseudonym "Free Thinker", containing criticism of the program and activities of the "Narodnaya Volya" and predicting its death.
At the end of April 1881, Alexander III took the side of the enemies of any changes in the system of state administration. (M.N. Katkov and K.P.
Pobedonostsev). This was followed by the removal of the Minister of the Interior, Count N.P., who patronized the Druzhina. Ignatiev, "Druzhina" was liquidated.
In 1887, Witte served as manager of the Southwestern Railways, and in 1889 he was promoted to Director of the Department of Railways in the Treasury (losing revenue in the process). Witte, with his characteristic energy, began to conquer St. Petersburg; at the beginning of 1892 he was already the Minister of Railways.
Further promotion through the ranks was complicated for him by a new marriage after the death of his first wife. His second wife Matilda Ivanovna Witte (Nurok, by her first marriage, Lisapevich) was a divorced Jewess. Despite all the efforts of Witte, she was not accepted at court. However, the marriage took place with the consent of Alexander III.
In August 1892, due to Vyshnegradsky's illness, Witte became his successor as Minister of Finance. Having taken the chair as one of the most influential ministers, Witte showed himself to be a real politician. He remained in this post for 11 years - from 1892 to 1903. Here he proved himself a supporter of the industrialization of the country for the Western European maneuver. Witte has repeatedly stressed that Russia has unique natural resources that are still dead weight. By the beginning of the 20th century, Witte had a clear program for the development of the economy: to catch up with the industrialized countries, take a strong position in trade with the East, ensure an active foreign trade balance, and all this - with unlimited state intervention in the economy and stable autocratic power.
Witte's reforms
Witte's reforms of 1892-1903 were carried out in Russia in order to eliminate the backlog of industry from Western countries.
S. Yu. Witte's reforms and their significance for the Russian economy
Scholars often refer to these reforms as the industrialization of tsarist Russia. Their specificity was that the reforms covered all the main spheres of the state's life, allowing the economy to make a colossal leap. That is why today such a term as the "golden decade" of Russian industry is used.
Witte's reforms are characterized by the following activities:
- Increase in tax revenues. Tax revenues have increased by about 50%, but we are not talking about direct, but about indirect taxes. Indirect taxes are the imposition of additional taxes on the sale of goods and services, which are borne by the seller and paid towards the state.
- Introduction of the wine monopoly in 1895. The sale of alcoholic beverages was declared a state monopoly, and only this item of income accounted for 28% of the budget of the Russian Empire. In money it is expressed approximately 500 million rubles a year.
- Gold backing of the Russian ruble. In 1897 S.Yu. Witte carried out a monetary reform, providing the ruble with gold. Banknotes were freely exchanged for gold bars, as a result of which the Russian economy and its currency became interesting for investment.
- Accelerated construction of railways. Approximately 2.7 thousand km of railway were built per year. This may seem like an insignificant aspect of the reform, but at that time it was very important for the state. Suffice it to say that in the war with Japan, one of the key factors in the defeat of Russia was the insufficient equipment of the railway, which made it difficult to move and move troops.
- Since 1899, restrictions on the import of foreign capital and the export of capital from Russia were lifted.
- In 1891, customs tariffs for the import of products were increased. It was a forced step that contributed to the support of local producers. It is thanks to this that the potential within the country has been created.
Brief table of reforms
Reform | Year | Tasks | Effects |
---|---|---|---|
"Wine" reform | 1895 | Creation of a state monopoly on the sale of all alcoholic products, including wine. | Increasing budget revenues up to 500 million rubles a year. "Wine" money is about 28% of the budget. |
Monetary reform | 1897 | Introduction of the gold standard, backing the Russian ruble with gold | Reduced inflation in the country. Restored international confidence in the ruble. Price stabilization. conditions for foreign investment. |
Protectionism | 1891 | Support for domestic producers by increasing customs duties on the import of goods from abroad. | Industry growth. economic recovery of the country. |
tax reform | 1890 | Increasing budget revenues. | Introduction of additional indirect taxes on sugar, kerosene, matches, tobacco. For the first time, the "apartment tax" was introduced. Increased taxes on the execution of state documents. Tax revenues increased by 42.7%. |
Preparing reforms
Until 1892, Sergei Yulievich Witte served as Minister of Railways. In 1892, he moved to the post of Minister of Finance of the Russian Empire. At that time, it was the Minister of Finance who determined the entire economic policy of the country. Witte adhered to the ideas of a comprehensive transformation of the country's economy. His opponent was Plehve, who promoted the classical path of development. Alexander 3, realizing that at the current stage the economy needed real reforms and transformations, sided with Witte, appointing him as Minister of Finance, thereby completely entrusting this person with the formation of the country's economy.
The main objective of the economic reforms of the late 19th century was to ensure that within 10 years Russia would catch up with Western countries, and also gain a foothold in the markets of the Near, Middle and Far East.
Monetary reform and investment
Today, one often talks about the phenomenal economic performance achieved by the Stalinist five-year plans, but their essence was almost completely borrowed from Witte's reforms. The only difference was that in the USSR, new enterprises did not become private property. Sergei Yulievich proposed to carry out the industrialization of the country in 10 years or in five years. The finances of the Russian Empire at that time were in a deplorable state. The main problem was high inflation, which was generated by payments to landlords, as well as continuous wars.
To solve this problem in 1897, Witte's monetary reform was carried out. The essence of this reform can be briefly described as follows - the Russian ruble was now backed by gold, or a gold standard was introduced. Thanks to this, investor confidence in the Russian ruble has increased. The state issued only the amount of money that was actually backed by gold. The banknote could be exchanged for gold at any time.
The results of Witte's monetary reform appeared very quickly. Already in 1898, significant amounts of capital began to be invested in Russia. Moreover, this capital was mostly foreign. Largely due to this capital, it became possible to carry out large-scale construction of railways throughout the country. The Trans-Siberian Railway and the Chinese Eastern Railway were built precisely thanks to Witte's reforms, and with foreign capital.
Foreign capital inflow
One of the effects of Witte's monetary reform and his economic policy was the influx of foreign capital into Russia. The total investment in Russian industry amounted to 2.3 billion rubles. The main countries that invested in the Russian economy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries:
- France - 732 million
- United Kingdom - 507 million
- Germany - 442 million
- Belgium - 382 million
- USA - 178 million
There were both positives and negatives in foreign capital. The industry, built with Western money, was completely controlled by foreign owners, who were interested in profit, but not in the development of Russia. The state, of course, controlled these enterprises, but operational decisions were all made locally. A striking example of what this leads to is the Lena massacre. Today, this topic is being speculated to accuse Nicholas 2 of harsh working conditions for workers, but in fact the enterprise was completely controlled by English industrialists, and it was their actions that led to a rebellion and execution of people in Russia.
Evaluation of reforms
In Russian society, Witte's reforms were perceived negatively, and by all people.
The main critic of the economic policy pursued was Nicholas 2, who called the Minister of Finance a "republican". The result is a paradoxical situation. Representatives of the autocracy did not like Witte, calling him a republican or a person who supported the anti-Russian position, and the revolutionaries did not like Witte because he supported the autocracy. Which of these people was right? It is impossible to unequivocally answer this question, but it was the reforms of Sergei Yulievich that strengthened the positions of industrialists and capitalists in Russia. And this, in turn, was one of the reasons for the collapse of the Russian Empire.
Nevertheless, thanks to the measures taken, Russia has taken the 5th place in the world in terms of total industrial production.
Results of economic policy S.Yu. Witte
- The number of industrial enterprises has grown significantly. Just the country was about 40%. For example, there were 2 metallurgical plants in the Donbass, and 15 more were built during the reform period. Of these 15, 13 plants were built by foreigners.
- Production increased: oil 2.9 times, pig iron 3.7 times, steam locomotives 10 times, steel 7.2 times.
- In terms of industrial growth, Russia came out on top in the world.
The main emphasis was placed on the development of heavy industry by reducing the share of light industry. One of the problems was that the main enterprises were built in cities or within the city. This created the conditions under which the proletariat began to settle in industrial centers. The migration of people from the village to the city began, and it was these people who later played their role in the revolution.
The tsarist government (Nicholas 2) tried to resolve acute economic and socio-political problems through reforms “from above”. Ministry of Finance at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. It was headed by S. Yu. Witte, who did a lot to turn Russia into an industrial country.
He took a number of important steps:
· the development of railway construction and the introduction of a single tariff on the railways;
introduction of a wine monopoly;
· state regulation of domestic and foreign trade;
expansion of private enterprise;
· stimulation of foreign investments;
· flexible tax legislation;
strengthening the national currency by introducing the gold equivalent of the ruble, etc.
Witte was made proposals for the destruction of the peasant community, to improve the situation of the workers, but they did not find support. At the beginning of the XX century. in the country there was an aggravation of socio-economic and political contradictions.
In 1894 - 95 years. Witte achieved the stabilization of the ruble, and in 1897 did what his predecessors had failed to do - he introduced gold money circulation, providing the country with a hard currency until the First World War and an influx of foreign capital. At the same time, taxation, especially indirect taxation, increased sharply. One of the most effective means of pumping money out of the people's pocket was the state monopoly introduced by Witte on the sale of alcohol, wine and vodka products.
At the turn of the 20th century, Witte's economic platform took on a quite definite and purposeful character: within about 10 years to catch up industrially with the more developed countries of Europe, to take a strong position in the markets of the Near, Middle and Far East. Accelerated industrial development was ensured by attracting foreign capital, accumulating domestic resources with the help of the state wine monopoly and strengthening indirect taxation, customs protection of industry from Western competitors and encouraging exports. It assigned a special role to foreign capital: at the end of the 1990s, Witte advocated their unlimited involvement in Russian industry and the railway business, calling these funds a cure for poverty and referring to examples from the history of the United States and Germany.
The peculiarity of Witte's course was that he, like none of the tsarist finance ministers, made extensive use of the exceptional economic power of power that existed in Russia. The instruments of state intervention were the State Bank and the institutions of the Minister of Finance, which controlled the activities of commercial banks.
Under the upswing of the 1890s, the Witte system contributed to the development of industry and railroad construction; By 1900, Russia had taken the 1st place in the world in terms of oil production. The seemingly stable political regime and the developing economy fascinated the small European holder, who willingly bought high-interest bonds of Russian state loans and railway companies.
Stolypin's reforms (briefly)
Stolypin carried out his reforms from 1906, when he was appointed prime minister until his death on September 5, which came from the bullets of assassins.
agrarian reform
In short, the main goal of Stolypin's agrarian reform was to create a wide stratum of wealthy peasants. Stolypin believed that the prosperous peasantry would become a real pillar of the autocracy. An important part of the Stolypin agrarian reform was the activity of the credit bank. This institution sold land to peasants on credit, either state-owned or purchased from landlords. Moreover, the interest rate on a loan for independent peasants was half that for communities. Another important part of Stolypin's reform was the resettlement of peasants on free lands. The bill prepared by the government provided for the transfer of state lands in Siberia to private hands without redemption. However, there were also difficulties: there were not enough funds or land surveyors to carry out land management work. But despite this, migration to Siberia, as well as the Far East, Central Asia and the North Caucasus, was gaining momentum. The move was free, and specially equipped "Stolypin" cars made it possible to transport livestock by rail. The state tried to equip life in the places of resettlement: schools, medical centers, etc. were built.
Being a supporter of zemstvo administration, Stolypin extended zemstvo institutions to some provinces where they did not exist before. It has not always been politically easy. For example, the implementation of the zemstvo reform in the western provinces, historically dependent on the gentry, was approved by the Duma, which supported the improvement of the situation of the Belarusian and Russian population, which constituted the majority in these territories, but met with a sharp rebuff in the State Council, which supported the gentry.
Industry reform
The main stage in resolving the labor issue during the years of Stolypin's premiership was the work of the Special Meeting in 1906 and 1907, which prepared ten bills that affected the main aspects of labor in industrial enterprises. These were questions about the rules for hiring workers, accident and illness insurance, hours of work, and so on. Unfortunately, the positions of industrialists and workers (as well as those who incited the latter to disobedience and rebellion) were too far apart and the compromises found did not suit either one or the other (which was readily used by all kinds of revolutionaries).
national question
Stolypin was well aware of the importance of this issue in such a multinational country as Russia. He was a supporter of the unification, and not the disunity of the peoples of the country. He suggested creating a special ministry of nationalities, which would study the characteristics of each nation: history, traditions, culture, social life, religion, etc. - so that they would flow into our huge state with the greatest mutual benefit. Stolypin believed that all peoples should have equal rights and duties and be loyal to Russia. Also, the task of the new ministry was to be counteracting the internal and external enemies of the country, who sought to sow ethnic and religious discord.
Post-reform Russia is characterized by the development of capitalism in breadth. The economy of post-reform Russia is characterized by a multistructural structure. Of great importance were such features of the economy and social relations in Russia as active state intervention in the economy and the weak development of private property.
In the 80-90s. 19th century a course was taken to modernize the industry. Its implementation is connected with the reform activities of I. G. Bunge, I. A. Vyshnegradsky, S. Yu. Witte.
I. G. Bunge(Minister of Finance 1881-1886), a supporter of the policy of protectionism (increasing customs duties), supporting private joint-stock banks, reforming the taxation system, eliminating the "temporarily obligated" state (1881), creating a Peasants' Bank (1882), abolishing redemption payments (1885).
I. A. Vyshnegradsky(Minister of Finance 1887-1892) continued the policy of protectionism: a new customs tariff was adopted (1891), indirect taxes were raised, the role of the state in regulating the economic activity of private enterprise was strengthened, and private railways were subordinated to the state. These measures ensured the stability of the financial system.
S. Yu. Witte(Minister of Finance 1892-1903, Chairman of the Committee of Ministers since 1903, Chairman of the Council of Ministers 1905-1906), supporter of the accelerated industrial development of the country.
Witte's reforms are an attempt to modernize Russia
- Reforms in the tax system
S. Yu. Witte made an attempt to reform commercial and industrial taxation.
In 1893, the program of the Ministry of Finance to reform the tax industry was outlined. On June 8, 1898, a trade tax was introduced (main and additional). The bulk of budget revenues were excise taxes from the production of such goods as vodka, tobacco, matches, kerosene and sugar. The state apartment tax was established. In 1895 sugar rationing was introduced.
- Introduction of wine monopoly
In 1894, a state monopoly was established on the trade in strong alcoholic beverages. Under S. Yu. Witte, the wine monopoly generated about a million rubles in revenue per day.
- Reforms in the railway sector
Back in 1889, the Provisional Regulations on Railway Tariffs were issued. Witte published new editions of the Regulations and, maneuvering tariff rates, changed the direction of cargo flows, supporting the domestic manufacturer.
Another direction of reforming the railway sector under S. Yu. Witte is the redemption of unprofitable railways by the state. By 1902, 2/3 of Russia's railways were bought into the ownership of the treasury. As a result of the measures taken, the railways began to bring net income to the state. During the 1890s, new lines were built: the Central Asian, Perm-Kotlas, Vologda-Arkhangelsk, Trans-Siberian Railway. Intensive railway construction contributed to the economic development of Russia, contributed to the development of Russia's heavy industry.
- Monetary reform
1893 - customs duties were established (1 kopeck per 100 rubles), transactions based on the exchange rate difference of the ruble, as well as other values, were prohibited, control over exchange transactions in Russia was strengthened, and a ban was introduced on the production of exchange transactions by foreign brokers. Thanks to these decisions, exchange rate fluctuations began to decrease.
1897 - a financial reform was carried out, the essence of which was the introduction of a gold backing of the ruble and its free conversion. To stabilize the ruble, the Ministry of Finance recognized the need to devalue the credit currency on the basis of monometallism.
1898 - the most important elements of the new financial system are legally fixed. The ruble has become one of the most stable currencies in the world. The reform contributed to Russia's integration into the world market system.
The introduction of the gold currency strengthened public finances and stimulated economic development. At the end of the XIX century. In terms of growth rates of industrial production, Russia overtook all European countries. This was facilitated by a wide influx of foreign investment in the country's industry. Only during the tenure of S. Yu. Witte as minister, their size reached 3 billion rubles. gold.
- Witte's activities in the agricultural sector of the economy
In 1902, heading a special meeting on the needs of the agricultural industry, Witte argued that the essence of the peasant question was the replacement of communal ownership of land by individual ownership, and called for the free exit of peasants from the community. In addition to the abolition in 1903 of mutual responsibility for making direct taxes, Witte did little in his ministerial post against the community.
- Industry reforms
Witte paid much attention to the training of personnel for industry and trade. By 1900, 3 polytechnic institutes, 73 commercial schools were established and equipped, several industrial and artistic institutions were established or reorganized (the Stroganov School of Technical Drawing), 35 merchant shipping schools were opened.
The growth of the strike movement prompted the government to return to the path of improving factory legislation. With the participation of Witte, laws were developed and adopted on the limitation of working hours at enterprises (1897), on the remuneration of workers who lost their ability to work as a result of an accident at work (1903), and on the introduction of factory elders in factories and plants (1903).
The results of Witte's reforms
In the late 1890s S. Yu. Witte advocated the unlimited attraction of foreign capital into Russian industry and the railway business. The peculiarity of the course pursued by Witte was that he made extensive use of the exceptional economic power of power. The instruments of state intervention were the State Bank and the institutions of the Minister of Finance, which controlled the activities of commercial banks. By 1900, Russia came out on top in the world in oil production.
For his unrestricted use of government intervention, Witte has been criticized:
- from the side of the reformers of the 1860s, who believed that industrialization was possible only through changes in the state system - the creation of a real ("united") government and the introduction of a government institution;
- in liberal circles, Witte's "system" was perceived as a "grand economic subversion of the autocracy", diverting the attention of the population from socio-economic, cultural and political reforms.
The world economic crisis (1900-1903) sharply slowed down the development of industry; the influx of foreign capital decreased, the budget balance was disturbed.
At the beginning of the XX century. there were significant changes in the country's economy. Russia was entering the stage of monopoly capitalism, although the backlog in terms of pace, volume of production and technical indicators in comparison with the countries of the West remained. The first monopolies in Russia arose at the end of the 19th century, in 1900-1903. their rapid growth began. At this time, oil trusts, the largest syndicates in the metallurgical (Prodamet) and coal (Produgol) industries, in transport engineering (Prodparovoz and Prodvagon), in the metalworking industry (military industrial group of the Russian-Asian Bank ). Powerful banking monopolies have developed. The basis of the credit system was the State Bank, the Central Bank of Issue and joint-stock commercial banks. The leading role among the banking monopolies was played by the Russian-Asian and St. Petersburg International Commercial Banks. Actively at the beginning of the century there was a process of merging of industrial and banking monopolies.
Features of the social development of post-reform Russia
- The political development of the country was determined by the nobility, whose representatives occupied key positions in government, owned a large land fund. The processes of the capitalist development of the country also drew the nobility into its orbit: noble entrepreneurship grew not only in agriculture, but also in industry, railway and banking.
- The number and proportion of the urban population increased. The big, middle and petty bourgeoisie, as well as hired workers, determined the social appearance of the city by the end of the 19th century. The urban lumpen proletariat appears. In 1880-1890. in the largest cities (Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Riga), electric lighting, trams, telephones and other technical innovations appeared.
- According to the All-Russian census of 1897, the population of the country was divided into:
- by class position: peasants, philistines, hereditary and personal nobles, merchants and honorary citizens, clergy, "others" ("foreigners", declassed elements who did not indicate their class affiliation);
- by occupation: agricultural (77.2%), commercial and industrial (17.3%) and "unproductive" (5.5%).
- An industrial proletariat and an industrial bourgeoisie are being formed.
Features of the working class at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries:
- a cadre of permanent workers is being formed, cut off from the land and living with their families in large industrial centers;
- the proportion of hereditary workers increases;
- a significant part of the workers still maintain contact with the land, with the countryside;
- the core of the proletariat in the post-reform era is wage workers in large industrial establishments and in railway transport;
- the main source of growth in the number of hired workers in various industries, agriculture, transport, and the service sector was the industrial and agricultural waste of peasants;
- an increase in the use of women's and children's labor in factories.
Features of the formation of the industrial bourgeoisie:
- Representatives of commercial and usurious capital emerged from among small commodity producers;
- the growth of industrial capital and the industrial bourgeoisie was associated with the transition from manufacture to large-scale machine industry;
- the social base for the formation of the industrial bourgeoisie was the merchant class, partly the bourgeoisie, but mainly representatives of the wealthy peasantry. The well-known dynasties of Russian manufacturers: the Guchkovs, the Konovalovs, the Kokushkins, the Kondrashevs, the Garelins, the Zubkovs, the Morozovs, the Prokhorovs, the Ryabushinskys, came from among the peasantry;
- in the 1870-1880s. organizations of the Russian bourgeoisie arose to protect their entrepreneurial interests: 1873 - in St. Petersburg, the "Council of Congresses of Representatives of Commercial Banks"; 1874 - in Kharkov "Council of congresses of miners of the South of Russia"; 1880 - "Council of congresses of miners of the Ural region"; 1884 - in Baku "Council of Congresses of Oil Industrialists", etc. These unions later served as the basis for the formation of large monopoly associations.
- The weak development of the "third estate" due to the insufficient development of private property in Russia.
However, the achieved level of development was insufficient, did not allow the Russian industry to successfully compete with the industry of more developed Western countries, and this meant that there were no guarantees of development stability. To ensure the increase in profitability, the government used profitable state orders, the monopolization of industry, a high level of exploitation, and colonial policy.
It was obvious that the contradictions between feudalism and capitalism would grow.
Sergei Yulievich WitteSERGEY YULIEVICH WITTE
Sergei Yulievich Witte (18491915) - Count (1905),
Russian state
activist, honorary member
Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1893).
Minister of Railways in
1892, finance from 1892,
Cabinet Chairman
ministers since 1903, Council
Ministers in 1905-06.
The initiator of the introduction of wine
monopoly (1894), holding
monetary reform (1897),
construction of the Siberian Railway. d.
Reform Objectives
CHALLENGES FOR REFORMENCOURAGING THE DEVELOPMENT OF HEAVY INDUSTRY
ENCOURAGING THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRIVATE
ENTREPRENEURSHIP
CREATION OF CUSTOMS PROTECTION FOR
INDUSTRY, EXPORT PROMOTION
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS
INCREASING MONEY IN THE TREASURY
ADDITIONAL ATTRACTION OF FOREIGN
CAPITAL TO RUSSIA
Reforms in the tax system
REFORM IN THE TAX SYSTEMIn 1893, state revenues exceeded expenditures
by 98.8 million rubles. Basically it could be
only achieved through tax increases. AT
in particular, under Witte was finally abolished
head tax in the agricultural regions of Siberia,
the defensive filing took the form of a layout
tax. But the main thing is that Witte made an attempt
reforming the commercial and industrial
taxation. Witte started
reform with the fact that it increased the fishing
tax from three percent to five.
Treasury revenues immediately increased
for 5 million rubles.
Introduction of wine monopoly
INTRODUCTION OF THE WINE MONOPOLYAt the initiative of Witte in 1894 was introduced
state monopoly on the trade in strong
alcoholic drinks. The essence of the drinking monopoly
is that no one can sell wine except
states, wine production should be limited
in the amount in which the state buys it, and
hence the conditions under which
insist the state. The reform had a positive
result.
Under Witte, the wine monopoly gave about
million rubles of receipts per day, and precisely
under him, the country's budget finally became
built on soldering the population.
Reforms in the railway sector
REFORMS IN THE RAILWAYHOUSEHOLD
In 1889, the Provisional Regulations on
railroad rates. Thus, the tariff
the case was brought under state control. AT
further Witte published new editions
position and, maneuvering tariff rates, changed
directions of cargo flows, encouraging certain articles
exports, and sometimes protecting protected
industries from competitive import
goods, that is, by supporting domestic
manufacturer. Another direction of reform
railway industry
under Witte - redemption of unprofitable
railways by the state.
Monetary reform
MONETARY REFORMThe ruble has become one of
the most stable currencies in the world.
The reform strengthened the external and
internal exchange rate of the ruble,
improved investment
climate in the country
helped to attract
economy of domestic and
foreign capitals.
With the start of World War I
war in 1914 money exchange for
gold has been discontinued; all 629
million gold rubles
disappeared from circulation.
She contributed
Russia's integration into the system
world market.
Golden imperial 1897
1 ruble sample 1898
Reforms in the agricultural sector of the economy
REFORMS IN THE AGRICULTURAL SECTORECONOMY
Heading in 1902 a special meeting on the needs
agricultural industry, Witte
could better understand the meaning of the peasant
issue and possible solutions. By
decision adopted at its meeting, the king
approved the network of provincial and
county committees.
Except for the abolition in 1903
mutual responsibility for making
direct taxes, Witte little
what did he do at the ministerial
post against the community.
Industry reforms
REFORMS IN THE INDUSTRYUnder him, by 1900 were established and
equipped with equipment from 3 polytechnic
Institute, 73 commercial schools,
established or reorganized several
industrial and artistic institutions,
including the famous
Stroganov School
technical drawing,
35 schools were opened
merchant shipping.
10. Results of reforms
REFORM RESULTSAs a result of the economic reforms carried out
S.Yu. Witte, there was not only a strengthening
finance and the ruble, but conditions were created for
rapid industrial boom. Politics
accelerated industrial development through
mobilization of internal resources, attraction
foreign capital, customs protection of domestic industry and encouragement
exports led to an increase in industrial
production in the 90s of the XIX century. 2-3 times.
Russia is approaching
industrialized
countries.
11. References
BIBLIOGRAPHY1. Sobolev M.N. Customs policy of Russia
in the second half of the 19th century. Tomsk, 1911. S.
356.
2. Lutokhin D.A. Count S.Yu. Witte as Minister
finance. Pg., 1915. S. 6.
3. Ananin B.V., Ganelin R.Sh. Sergey Yulievich
Witte // Questions of History, No. 8, 1990.
4. Yurovsky L. On the way to monetary
reform", Moscow, 1924
- Economic security of the Russian Federation Political economic security of the Russian Federation
- Antimonopoly policy, its goals and methods The main direction of the antimonopoly policy of the state is
- What reforms did Witte make briefly
- Okun's law and the theory of "full employment" of the population