International economics in brief. International economics
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International Economics (lecture notes KNEU)
The subject of the course is "International Economics". International economic system: essence and structure. International economic relations. International economic activity. The totality of national economies. Classification of countries according to the level of social economic development... Internationalization of economic life. International division of labor: essence, forms and factors. Features of the current stage of development of the world economy. The main forms of international economic relations. The MEW level. MEO principles. The main subjects of the MEO. Development environment for MEO. The subject of the course is "International Economics".The subject of the course "International Economics" is a multi-level complex of economic relations between countries and their groupings. International economics also studies the relationship between individual economic entities located in different countries: by individuals, households, businesses, government and civil institutions.
Particular attention is paid to the study of the economic mechanism of the functioning of the international economy, that is, international legal norms, economic agreements, the activities of international economic organizations.
The object of the study of the international economy is not isolated, random phenomena, processes in the international sphere, but those that are constantly renewed and repeated. That is, the patterns of interaction between economic entities of different states in the international exchange of goods, the movement of production factors, and the formation of international economic policy are revealed.
When studying international economics, they use the achievements of various areas of economic thought: Marxist, classical, neoclassical, neo-Keynesian, monetarist. Scientists hold different views regarding the factors that determine the country's place in the system of the international division of labor, the role public policy in the regulation of the foreign economic sphere.
The theoretical basis for the study of international economics is political Economy, micro - and macroeconomics. Combining these disciplines with the theories of international business, international marketing and management, international finance made it possible to create a theory of international economics.
The basic concepts of the theory of international economics are: world market, world economy, openness of the national economy, liberalization of foreign economic relations, international division of labor, international trade, international capital movement, international labor migration.
International economic system: essence and structure.
The International Economic System (MES) is a set of elements of the world economy with characteristics inherent in each of them; in the process of action of the elements of the world economy, integrative qualities, characteristics, and regularities of the functioning of this system arise.
The main elements of the MES are individual countries, groups of countries. You can divide the MES into groups such as high the developed countries (the countries of the big seven, the European Union, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development), medium-developed countries, developing countries, countries with economies in transition.
At the present stage, the functions of the kernel global economy move to a number of developed countries that are distinguished by developed social and market economies; the greatest selection of sources and factors of industrial development; a leading role in the world economy, which makes it possible to actively involve their own and other people's resources in the economic turnover.
In addition, the MES consists of a subsystem of various international markets and a subsystem of national and international institutions that regulate the MES; subsystems of international economic relations.
International economic relations.
There are various relations between countries: political, scientific, cultural. The countries cooperate in various fields: they organize international exhibitions of paintings, exchange artists, scientists, experience in the field of technology, environmental protection. International economic relations (MEO) is one of the forms of international relations. MEO mediating the implementation of other forms of international relations. For example, for the normal functioning of scientific and technical relations between countries, an international market for scientific and technical products is necessary. In addition, MEO is a system of economic relations regarding the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of products that have gone beyond national borders (Fig. 1).
The product can be produced on the basis of the cooperation of the production resources of two or more countries. Subjects from different countries can exchange goods as a result of which the production and consumption of a particular product will be located in different countries. International distribution relations are relations that arise about a) the distribution of factors of production (means of production, labor) between countries; b) the distribution of products of economic activity among entities from different countries; c) distribution of income between the MEW participants.
Depending on the object of MEO, they are subdivided into trade, monetary and financial, production, scientific and technical, etc. These relations will be discussed in more detail in the next lectures, but now we note that all of them together form a system. One of the systemic characteristics of this system is the interconnection of its individual elements. For example, the joint production of complex equipment by economic entities from different countries (industrial relations) may be accompanied by trade in individual components, details between them (trade relations), scientific and technical exchange (scientific and technical relations).
MEOs between individual European states, as well as within individual regions (Europe - North Africa, Europe - the Middle East, etc.) arose relatively long ago. These relations were initially exclusively bilateral, university-regional. Indeed, international economic relations become with the emergence of the world economy, the emergence of interdependence of national economies.
In the process of development of the international economic system, there is an expansion and deepening of economic relations between countries; groups of countries; enterprises and organizations located in different states. It is characteristic that the processes of interaction between countries, their cooperation are of a contradictory nature. The MEO dialectic is that the desire of states for economic independence, strengthening of national economies ultimately determines the increasing internationalization of the economic life of countries.
The core of modern MEO is the international economic activity of economic entities, primarily enterprises. The activities of the latter are aimed at obtaining certain economic results, primarily profit.
There are enterprises whose activities are mainly focused on the national market. Foreign economic relations for such enterprises are of secondary importance in the system of priorities of their activities. Other enterprises consider foreign economic activity as a necessary factor in their normal functioning. Some of them consider orientation to the world market to be the initial principle of their activity. And, finally, there are firms that “work” exclusively for the external market.
International economic activity.
The activities of enterprises on the international market are carried out in the following forms:
1. Export and import of goods and services. This is often the first foreign trade transaction of a firm. This operation assumes, as a rule, the minimum obligations and the least risk for the production resources of the firm, requires relatively small costs. For example, firms can increase their exports of products by loading their excess capacity, which minimizes the need for additional capital investment.
2. Contract, cooperation agreements (licensing, franchising). When licensed, a firm (licensor) enters into a relationship with a foreign firm (licensee), offering the rights to use the production process, trademark, patent, know-how in exchange for a license fee. Franchising is one of the methods of cooperation (primarily international) in the sale of goods and services of a fairly well-known company (franchisor) through a sales organization (franchisee) specially created with its participation thanks to the franchisee's right to use the trademark and know-how of the franchisor.
Thus, the well-known manufacturer of copying equipment, Kerox, having a reliable reputation, is creating a network of sales companies in various countries to jointly market various services for copying printed materials. Xerox requires national partners to strictly adhere to the technology of service delivery; finances the purchase or lease of premises by partners; trains local staff; controls the proper use of the brand name by partners.
Famous companies also use franchising of goods and services: McDonald's, Singer, Coca-Cola, Hilton. The greatest application of franchising is in the service sector, tourism, household appliances service, fast food system, car repairs.
Enterprises often buy foreign licenses and apply for franchising after they have been successful in exporting their products to the foreign market.
3. Business activities abroad (research work, banking operations, insurance, contract production, rent). Contract manufacturing involves the conclusion of a contract by a company with a foreign manufacturer, which can produce goods, the sale of which the specified company can be engaged in. The lease provides for the provision by the lessor for temporary use of the property to the lessee for an agreed rent for a specified period in order to obtain commercial benefits.
The range of rented goods is quite wide: cars and trucks, airplanes, tankers, containers, computers, communications equipment, standard industrial equipment, warehouses, i.e. movable and real estatewhich belongs to fixed assets.
In international practice, there are three types of lease, depending on its duration:
Short-term lease - renting, the duration of which can range from several hours to one year;
Medium-term lease - highing, which provides for the lease of property for a period of 1 to 3 years;
Long term lease - for more than three years.
4. Portfolio and direct investment abroad. Investment activity abroad may be associated with the creation of an enterprise of its own production branch; investing in shares of an existing foreign firm; investing in real estate, government securities.
The above classification of forms of international entrepreneurial activity is rather arbitrary. for example economic activity abroad (3) is almost always accompanied by the inflow of investments there (4).
At different stages of the development of MEO, one of the forms of international economic activity prevails. At the present stage, for many developed countries, the leading form is transnational production activities, which are based on foreign investment activities of enterprises.
The totality of national economies.
The entire totality of national economies in the world is about 200 states. The United Nations, the International Monetary Ford, and the World Bank give the most complete characterization of this aggregate. At the same time, the UN focuses on the social and demographic aspects of countries' development. It is important for the World Bank to assess the degree of economic development of countries.
To understand and assess the differences between national economies, determine their place and development prospects in the world economy, an urgent problem in the theory and practice of MEO is their systematization [see: 12] according to various criteria (Fig. 2).
Figure: 1.2. Signs of systematization of countries Countries can be systematized by regional (geographical) basis: European (West, East, South, North); North American (USA, Canada, Mexico), South American, Middle East, East, Southeast and South Asia, African (North, Central, South, West), etc. But such a systematization gives quite diverse groups of countries.
The systematization of countries by organizational basis distributes countries into groups depending on participation in international organizations, conferences, meetings, etc. The most influential organizations are:
· Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) - founded in 1960, unites 24 countries with high income and level of development (19 countries in Europe, USA, Canada, Japan, Australia, New Zealand). The goals of the organization are to achieve rapid economic development, maintain financial stability, free trade and ensure favorable conditions for the development of the third world countries;
· General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the World Trade Organization (GATT / WTO) - unites more than 120 countries of the world, the main goal is the development of trade liberalization. Since the inception of the GATT in 1947, international tariffs have been reduced from 40% to 4%. The WTO began functioning in 1995 as a more institutionalized structure for the regulation of international trade.
· Bretton Woods Institutions - the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) ensure the functioning and development of the modern world monetary system, since 1944. IMF members are 169 countries of the world.
Classification of countries by the level of socio-economic development.
The most important is the principle of classification of countries, their groups according to the level of socio-economic development. The approach of B. Gavrilishin is fruitful, when the types of socio-economic systems are characterized through their comparison according to a number of the following characteristics: the main motive for the activity of the main economic entity, the nature of property, the nature of the market, the role of government in socio-economic life, the root cause and the main goal of the functioning economic system (see: table. 1).
Table 1.1.
TYPES OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
Key features |
System types |
||||
Free enterprise (capitalism) |
Agreed free enterprise |
Administrative command system |
Distributive socialism |
Market socialism |
|
1. The main motive and / or criterion of activity |
Profit maximization |
Maximizing growth and profits |
Maximizing production |
Viability |
|
2. Nature of ownership |
State |
Collective |
|||
3. Nature of the market |
Free |
Free |
Managed |
Free |
Controls |
4. Role of government |
Limited by the above mentioned characteristics |
Harmonized economic activity |
Decision making; planning, management |
Counteract unfairness in distribution |
Defining goals; coordination; regulation |
5. Root cause and main purpose |
Economic: efficient production |
Economic and political; improving the situation of the country, meeting individual needs |
Political; creation of the material base of communism |
Social; efficient production; fair distribution |
Socialist economic democracy through self-government |
The division of countries into three groups is also used, such as:
1. Industrialized countries - 24 highly developed countries. A powerful group among these countries are the countries of the so-called "Big Seven". Great Britain, Italy, Canada, Germany, USA, France, Japan, producing the largest volumes of GDP in the world and concentrating in their hands a significant part of international trade.
2. Countries with economies in transition - 28 states of Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, which are making the transition from administrative-command to market economy: Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Armenia, Georgia, Estonia, Kazakhstan, Moldova, Poland, Russia, Romania, Uzbekistan, Ukraine and others. In this group, there is a subgroup that has significant achievements in reforming national economies. This subgroup includes: Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary and the Czech Republic.
3. Developing countries - 132 countries in Asia, Africa, Latin America. Due to their large number and features of the socio-economic development of national economies, these countries are usually systematized by region, taking into account their geographical position. 1.
International Economics (lecture notes KNEU)
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THEME 1. INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC SYSTEM. Part 3.
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TOPIC 2. INTERNATIONAL TRADE. Part 1.
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TOPIC 2. INTERNATIONAL TRADE. Part 2.
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TOPIC 2. INTERNATIONAL TRADE. Part 3.
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TOPIC 3. INTERNATIONAL INVESTMENT. 1. The reasons and essence of the international movement of capital.
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TOPIC 3. INTERNATIONAL INVESTMENT. 2. Forms of foreign investment.
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TOPIC 3. INTERNATIONAL INVESTMENT. 3. Transnational corporations and their role in the modern development of international economic relations
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TOPIC 3. INTERNATIONAL INVESTMENT. 4. State and problems of foreign investment in Ukraine.
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TOPIC 3. INTERNATIONAL INVESTMENT. GLOSSARY
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TOPIC 4. INTERNATIONAL CREDIT. 1. International credit and its role in international economic relations.
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TOPIC 4. INTERNATIONAL CREDIT. 2. Forms and types of international credit.
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TOPIC 4. INTERNATIONAL CREDIT. 3. World financial market.
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TOPIC 4. INTERNATIONAL CREDIT. 4. International monetary and financial organizations.
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TOPIC 4. INTERNATIONAL CREDIT. 5. The problem of debt and possible ways to solve it.
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TOPIC 4. INTERNATIONAL CREDIT. GLOSSARY.
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TOPIC 5. INTERNATIONAL WORKFORCE MIGRATION. 1. ESSENCE, STRUCTURE AND MAIN FEATURES OF THE WORLD LABOR MARKET.
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The world economy is called the system of national economies of individual countries, united by the international division of labor, as well as trade, production and other diverse norms of economic ties.
The development of the world economy has come a long way. Historically, trade was the first form of international economic ties. Its objective basis was the social division of labor, which crossed the boundaries of national borders and reached the international level.
The international division of labor is the specialization of individual countries in the production of certain types of products that they exchange with each other. The international division of labor originated in the manufacturing period of the development of capitalism. At the same time, the main form of its implementation at that time was bilateral and trilateral foreign trade relations. In the era of the industrial revolution, the interconnectedness of national economies increased, they were drawn into the world market. A feature of the international division of labor at the end of the XIX - the first half of the XX century. became monocultural specialization of a whole group of countries (colonial and dependent), that is, fixing them as suppliers of one or more goods, mainly raw materials or energy.
With the development of industry and the deepening of technological specialization in the field of production, the international division of labor took on modern forms. Today, the main forms of world economic relations are: international trade in goods and services, movement of capital, interstate integration in the field of production, labor migration, exchange in the field of science and technology, currency and credit relations. Accordingly, the structure of the world market consists of the following elements:
1) the world market for goods and services;
2) the world capital market;
3) the world labor market;
4) the global financial market.
The modern world market is an integral system of trade, financial and economic ties between national economies. In this market, world prices are formed and operate.
International trade includes two interrelated processes: export and import. Export (export) of goods means that they are sold on the external market. The economic efficiency of exports for a particular country is determined by the fact that this country exports the products, the production costs of which are lower than the world ones. When importing (importing) goods, the country acquires those goods, the production of which is currently economically unprofitable for it. The total value of exports and imports forms a foreign trade turnover (balance) with other countries.
Historically, there have been various forms of state protection of national interests in world markets. In the XV-XVIII centuries, when the main dominant economic theory there was mercantilism, states in every possible way stimulated exports and restrained imports, primarily through the introduction of customs duties. Customs duty is a tax that is levied when goods cross the customs border and therefore increases the price of the imported goods. However, protectionism inevitably leads to a reduction in foreign trade and self-isolation of the country. That is why during the industrial revolution many countries came to the idea of \u200b\u200bfree trade - free trade (from the English free trade - free trade). They began to open their domestic markets to foreign goods, capital and labor in order to increase competition in the domestic market.
However, volatility in global trade and global economic crises XX century forced many countries to revive protectionist policies. Today, most states in their foreign economic policy combine both liberal ideas of free trade and protectionism, using not only customs tariffs, but also non-tariff measures. The latter include licenses, quotas, standards, labeling, etc. Free economic zones are also widespread in world practice. To regulate relations between countries in the field of international trade, the World Trade Organization (WTO) has been established, in which our country has had observer status since 1992.
Economic reformsheld in Russia since 1991 led to the integration of Russia into the system of world economic relations. However, the country's current position in the international division of labor is complex and contradictory. The reproducing production structure was practically destroyed in the process of reforms. The migration of highly skilled labor from the country has reached enormous proportions. The processing industries could not withstand the competition with the products of the imported industry poured into the market. The country has practically secured the status of a raw material power supplying cheap gas, oil, timber, fish, furs and other raw materials to the international market. Russian exports to non-CIS countries are dominated by mineral products (40.2%), metals, precious stones and products from them (31.7%), timber and pulp and paper products (5.5%); in import from these countries - machinery, equipment, vehicles (39.4%) and food products (26.6%), which are often of low quality and are not harmless to public health.
The 1998 crisis and the subsequent devaluation of the ruble allowed Russian enterprises to squeeze foreign goods out of the market for some time, but economists note that this effect is gradually fading away. Currently, the country is faced with the task of restoring production, its technological re-equipment in order to produce goods that would be competitive both on the domestic and foreign markets.
Section 4. Social relations.
Topic: The concept of social communities and groups.
Sociology studies society as a system of interacting social subjects with their needs, abilities, actions, relationships and institutions. The totality of these indicators is combined general concept "Society". Society has its carriers - social subjects. They are various representatives of society: leaders, groups, professions, classes, nations, ethnic groups, gangs, movements, parties, blocs, groups, collectives, communities, etc.
The bearer of society is an individual, an individual person to the extent that he is included in public life, performs social functions, actively or passively participates in public life.
Social community - a variety of aggregates (unions, associations) of people, differing from each other in quantitative composition, time of existence, as well as varying degrees of organization and cohesion.
There are 2 types of communities:
1. Communities that arise objectively, spontaneously, regardless of the consciousness of people - nations, nationalities, ethnic groups, classes, professions, specialties, estates, castes, etc. Nobody created them, their representatives may not know about each other's existence, they do not create organizations, do not occur, etc., but by virtue of the fact of their existence they create social communities, are subjects of social life.
2. Communities arising on the basis of common interests and general position. This type includes parties, movements, blocs, associations, etc. Common is the presence of social status and common social roles.
A social group is any set of people that has any socially significant attribute (gender, age, nationality, profession, income, education, power, etc.).
The criteria by which different social groups can be classified:
1. By the number of members - small (construction teams, teachers' departments, music groups, student groups), large (parties, trade unions, estates, associations, etc.) and mass.
2. By the time of existence - temporary, groups of long-term existence, permanent.
3. By the compactness of existence - scattered, collected compactly, collected periodically.
4. In form - spontaneously formed, gathered voluntarily, gathered by force, under the pressure of circumstances.
5. By nature - open and closed.
6. By the degree of organization - organized, partly organized, unorganized.
7. By structuredness - having a permanent structure, having a temporary structure, not structured.
8. By type of activity - fully engaged in one type of activity, partially engaged in one type of activity, engaged in different types of activity.
9. By the form of intragroup cohesion - cohesive, disunited.
Today its importance is growing steadily. Both consumers and manufacturers of all countries are beginning to feel more and more clearly their own involvement in the large-scale world economy, as evidenced by statistics over the past few years. International trade in 1996 went beyond $ 10.6 trillion. The growth rates for each year are significantly ahead of the production growth. Nowadays, every sixth product ends up in consumer hands through world trade.
Interpretation of the concept in question
World economy - this is a certain set of all national economies, which are united by different types of so-called world economic ties. Here the emphasis is mainly on the level of development of all productive forces, more or less total for mankind, the division of labor (worldwide) conditioned by it, in which all nations are involved to one degree or another; it also affects both the sphere of circulation and the area of \u200b\u200bproduction.
World economy and international relations
We are talking about internal and external transactions. In essence, the latter continue the logic of the former, they have one goal, which is to maximize income for all producers and utility for all consumers. However, there are still significant differences between them, which are due to the state borders between economically interconnected countries and national sovereignty.
These are the following important points:
1. For international transactions, settlements are required in foreign currency, convertible into internal currency at the appropriate rate. The exchange process itself is fraught with risk, complications that are not typical for internal transactions, since exchange ratios are subject to various kinds of fluctuations.
2. National governments have the right to impose any kind of restrictions on all international transactions, but cannot use them in relation to domestic ones. The so-called trial restrictions include tariffs, export incentives through subsidies, various import quotas, voluntary export limits, and restrictions on the conversion of the national currency. These measures deeply affect the entire economy, however, they concern primarily not internal economic processes, but international ones.
3. Each country has a monetary and fiscal policy that affects the economic growth, inflation rate, employment rate and so on. Most often, this kind of policy, total for the regions of one country, varies considerably from one state to another. For example, if the inflation rates in France are similar in all its regions, the differences between Germany and France in this indicator may well be quite significant, and this will immediately affect the competitiveness of goods and services of one country in the markets of another, third countries.
So, most of the changes in international financial and trade transactions are initiated precisely by the state of internal environmental policy, which is carried out by one or another power.
4. As a rule, each state is aware of much more about the volume, structure, directions of foreign trade than about the indicators of domestic transactions. For example, in the United States, someone does not know what goods, in what volumes, New York and California trade between themselves. Such information is not recorded at the administrative boundaries. The situation with foreign trade is quite different. At the moment a merchant ship leaves a foreign port, or upon arrival at it, buyers or sellers are required to fill out an import or export declaration, which informs about the nature of the cargo transported, its value, weight, sender, recipient, and other information. From there, you can glean, to a certain extent, accurate information regarding international trade and other world economic transactions, which is usually not enough for the study of foreign trade and other economic operations.
5. Factors of production are much more mobile within the country itself than between states. There is little to hinder the movement of labor between the states (English counties). But various kinds of immigration restrictions, socio-cultural differences are serious barriers to movement between countries.
6. In order to enter foreign markets, all exporters need to adapt their own products to both the standards and preferences of foreign consumers.
After we figured out what the world economy and international relations are, it is worth moving on to the economic components.
Sections of the world economy
The following areas of economics (theory) are known:
- The so-called net international trade benefits from it.
- Commercial policy. This theory studies the causes, as well as the results of different limits on commodity exchange, the movement of factors of production, etc.
- Balance of payments where the analysis of the ratio total income and the total costs of the country in question relative to another state, its current exchange rate.
- Unbalanced balance of payments, methods of their prompt equalization under different monetary systems (international).
The first and second sections - the international economy (world economy), more precisely, its microeconomic aspect, in view of the fact that they consider a number of regularities in the implementation of economic relations between two specific subjects (a firm, a state, an individual) using such an example as the movement of goods, factors production, their market characteristics, such as supply, demand, price, etc.
If we consider real life, we will see that states exchange a large number of goods, services, factors of production. Within the framework of the balance of payments, the summation of total income and expenses from international transactions is carried out. The total amount from international trade, the need to regulate it most often reflects, so to speak, the aggregate volumes of production, income, the general price index of trading nations, and therefore the 3rd and 4th sections, which also make up the world economy, are the sphere macroeconomic analysis.
From the standpoint of the analysis methodology, the sections of the international economy do not have a clear division. With regard to international trade, the research process is abstract, theoretical. The study of international finance becomes practical and politically oriented. Subsequently, a synthesized macro- and micro-toolkit is formed for the process of analyzing the existing world economic relations.
The world economy is the support of scientists in an attempt to explain the structure and volume of international transactions, assess their impact on the domestic economy, and recommend such a national policy regarding world economic relations that maximize national welfare.
Fundamentals of Economics
The international economy has been studied for a long time, however, at all historical stages of its development, scientists put a completely different content into the concept under consideration. For a long period of time, the following approach dominated: the world economy is the sum of national economies that, to a certain extent, have contact with each other within the framework of the economic area. In the justification of this kind of contacts, which occasionally acquired the character of relatively long-term, even stable relations, the point of view always prevailed that they had more advantages than disadvantages. The simplest, unpretentious model of the identical kind is presented as a kind of "scraps", which in size relatively correspond to the share of individual countries according to a certain criterion.
The international economy was undergoing large-scale and deep integration, as well as internationalization. So, integration is a form of internationalization of the economic side of life, so to speak, an objective process of crossing national economies and pursuing a clearly coordinated economic policy - both at the national and international levels - in various forms: as free trade, common markets, political and monetary economic, customs and economic unions.
Internationalization is a process aimed at developing the world economy, namely, economic ties between national economies, while the economy of one state is an element of the world economic process, deepening on the basis of scientific and technical cooperation, specialization, and the international division of labor.
The above processes actually changed the face of the entire world economy, making them participants in both countries, regions, and autonomously acting subjects in the form of individual firms, which subsequently acquired a transnational character.
So, the modern world economy is a number of national economies that interact in various forms of market activity both at the macro and micro levels in accordance with the rules and standards of competition. At the same time, fundamental national interests and priorities must be ensured.
From this side, the world economy is a synonym for the world economy, and the macro level is the interaction of national states, subregional, regional, national economies as a whole - the international economy, and the micro level is the interaction of economic units, that is, individual firms, households, state enterprises and private sector, TNCs, FIGs. The interaction of individual markets also takes place at this level.
At this stage, we examined the basics of the economy, now we turn to the study of its structure and models.
The structure of the international economy
To understand the topic we are considering, it is important to have a clear structure of the entire world economy. Thus, the world economy is a complex dynamic system that consists of numerous, closely related macroeconomic elements. It has a complex territorial-production, functional structure, which includes sectoral, inter-sectoral links, complexes, associations, regions, enterprises. The relationship between these parts is the structure of the world economy. The latter, together with its optimality, is of great importance for the sustainable, effective development of the international economy.
The structure of the economy of the world economy and national economies is the most important proportions in the production and consumption of GNP. Changes in the system take place primarily under the influence of changing social needs and capital accumulation.
So, structural adjustments can be interpreted both broadly and narrowly. In the latter case, they represent some shifts within the product and sectoral structure, and in the first case, they add compound changes in the production and consumption of funds: fixed capital, investments, material, labor, and energy resources.
The structure of the international economy includes:
- sectoral economy;
- reproductive;
- territorial;
- socio-economic.
International economic models
So, with the relative unity of the world economy, everything is more or less clear. At the same time, we note that some differences between certain parts of it cannot but exist. They can be established using spatial models. So, let's consider 2 models of the world economy:
- two-term;
- three-member.
Let's dwell on each of them in more detail.
Two-Term Model of the World Economy
It implies the division of states into 2 large groups:
- Economically developed.
- Developing.
In accordance with the specifics of the geographical location, the first group is conventionally called the North, the second - the South. In addition to the fact that over the past few years in most countries of the South the (economic) growth rates are higher than in the North, the countries of the second group are starting to lag significantly behind in terms of the main indicators of socio-economic development.
A number of countries are very far behind development, which is why they received the nickname "the uncoupled carriage of the world economy", for example, Afghanistan, Nepal, the countries of Central Africa, North Korea, etc.
In the three-term model of the world economy, the following powers are usually distinguished:
- the most economically developed;
- developing;
- with an economy in transition.
Over the past few years, a special three-member model has been formed, subdivided into Center, Semi-periphery, and Periphery.
Post-industrial countries, or countries of the "center"
This includes economically developed powers that establish the global scientific and technological progress. The countries of the world economy of this model are 25-30 states of the North ( general population approximately 1 billion people - the “golden billion”), its main cores are the “big seven”, the European Union (here a high level of unity of trade, production, financial relations has been achieved, the transition to a post-industrial type of society has been made).
Agrarian countries, or countries of the "periphery"
This includes about 100 countries, most often located in the tropics. They usually live by using natural resources... Most countries are overpopulated. In some, zones of political instability and conflicts have been preserved.
Industrial countries, or countries of the "semi-periphery"
This includes the newly industrialized countries of Asia, states with a transitional type of economy. Some powers are engaged in oil exports.
International economic relations
In the course of labor, on the basis of the relationship of mankind with nature, certain relationships are formed between people, due to the production of material goods, services, which are referred to as economic relations. They have a complex hierarchical system. Economic relations can be viewed from different angles based on the purpose of the study, the criteria for classifying the elements that are included in it. Here, the interrelationships of a reproductive nature, more precisely, production, distribution, as well as exchange and consumption, are distinguished.
They are also classified based on their forms of ownership:
- private;
- state.
Russia in the framework of the world economy
Our country has a fairly powerful economy. Based on the size of GDP, it is one of the ten largest ORS in the world. In addition, Russia is the world's largest exporter (in 2003, exports amounted to more than $ 1,333 billion). Even in spite of a sufficient degree of industry differentiation, the export orientation consists mainly of sales, export of raw materials. Russia in the world economy is a “raw material superpower”. The Russian industry manages to produce competitive products within the technological sector. First of all, this applies to weapons, which are exported to 55 countries, amounting to over $ 5 billion.
Our country has established the production of high-quality power equipment, which is in demand in most foreign countries. An important point is the high degree of development of the nuclear and space industries. A number of experts predict the rapid development of the timber industry and offshore programming.
As mentioned earlier, Russia is a raw material superpower in the world economy, which is why raw materials are the basis for accurate trade growth. This primarily applies to the oil sector, non-ferrous and ferrous metallurgy. They are called "the whales of the domestic industry", which together give up to 70% of the state foreign exchange earnings. There is a constant increase in their share. At the same time, sales and growth are taking place in fierce competition. Our oil industry competes with OPEC countries.
Global problems of the international economy
Today the following problems of the world economy are known:
- Resource depletion - the growing deficit of soil, plant, climatic, animal resources, minerals, acting both as raw materials and as the basis of the production process.
- The economic development of countries is characterized by such quality as multi-vector (state division into 3 categories: "third world" countries, developing and highly developed). This creates inefficiencies in world trade.
- NTR - ill-considered, irrational use of scientific and technological revolution achievements.
- Serious food crisis.
Is a set of interrelated national economiesparticipating in.
- This is a system of international economic relations, linking national economies. The international economic system includes trade, financial relations, the distribution of capital resources and labor.
Characteristics of the world economy
Integrity... It assumes economic interaction of all parts of the system at a fairly stable level. Only in these conditions is it possible to ensure constant activity, self-regulation and development of the system.
Hierarchy.There are hierarchy depending on their level. have the greatest impact on the system of the world economy, occupy dominant positions in world markets.
Self-regulation and adaptation carried out through, as well as with the help of state and interstate regulation. The main trend in the development of the modern world economy is the strengthening of the interdependence and interconnection of national economies, which manifests itself in world economic relations.
Elements of the world economy
Elements world economy are. The relationship between them is carried out through the cross-border movement of goods and services, information, results of intellectual activity, capital, etc.
Subjects of the world economy
Foreign economic turnover can affect economic growth when it reaches the level of 25% to (Y).
The openness of the economy is associated with the country's participation in.
A discipline that studies the interaction of financial entities from different countries.
The world economy cannot function without a single mechanism, therefore transnational corporations began to develop at the micro level, and the World Bank, WTO, IMF and other organizations at the macro level. Today, states are actively involved in investment activities and currency and financial transactions. Such relations are the subject of international economics. The theory has two parts, macroeconomics and microeconomics.
The discipline studies the patterns of development of the world market, supply and demand for goods and services of international trade, international financial markets, export and import, development trends and possible ways improvements.
A national economy becomes international if there is a foreign element in it. For example, when a consumer buys a product abroad, the entrepreneur leases the property to the foreign legal entity, or a citizen of any country takes a job abroad.
Signs of an international economy:
- developed international trade;
- international movement of factors of production;
- economic policy of countries, which includes the development of international relations and trade;
- enterprises operating in several countries (TNCs);
- development of mechanisms for regulating economic relations.
The structure of the international economy
The international economy manifests itself in the following forms: state (domestic) regulation, international economic relations and international regulation. The basis for the emergence of the world market was the division of labor between countries, which led to the movement of capital and labor. As an example, we can cite any large car company: auto parts are produced in different countries, employees and buyers can be foreign citizens.The economic policy of this or that country is of great importance for the development of the international economy. These are favorable conditions for foreign investors, and soft mode currency control, and the development of free economic zones.
International economic relations are trade in financial instruments (stocks, derivatives), international settlements, international movement of capital and technology, trade in goods and services.
The regulation and regulation of processes are carried out by international economic organizations... For example, the WTO resolves disputes arising in international trade and regulates it using tariff methods, or the IMF - regulates the international monetary system and the stability of exchange rates.
The socio-economic structure implies the division of countries into developed (Japan, Canada, USA), with economies in transition (Lithuania, Georgia) and developing (Indonesia, Argentina).
The sectoral structure implies the division of industries into primary (industry and agriculture), secondary (construction, electricity) and tertiary (finance, health care, insurance).
Among the main trends in the international economy are globalization, integration of the economies of neighboring countries (for example, NAFTA, ASEAN), transnationalization (development of TNCs and MNCs) and liberalization (indirect economic regulation, reduction of customs duties).