The contradiction of economic development in 20 50.
In the extreme conditions of the civil war, the internal policy pursued by the Soviet government was called "war communism". The prerequisites for its implementation were laid down by the widespread nationalization of industry and the creation of a state apparatus for managing it (first of all, the All-Russian Council of National Economy - VSNKh), the experience of the military-political solution of food problems through the committees of the poor in the countryside. On the one hand, the policy of "war communism" was perceived by part of the country's leadership as a natural step towards the rapid construction of a market-free socialism, which supposedly corresponded to the principles of Marxist theory. In this they hoped to rely on the collectivist ideas of millions of workers and poor peasants who were ready to divide all property in the country equally. On the other hand, this was a forced policy due to the disruption of traditional economic ties between town and country, the need to mobilize all resources to win the civil war.
The policy of "war communism" included a set of measures of an economic and socio-political nature. The main ones are: the nationalization of all means of production, the introduction of centralized management, equalizing distribution of products, forced labor and political dictatorship. The accelerated nationalization of large, medium, and then small enterprises led to the elimination of the private sector in industry. It began to be tightly managed through the branch administrations of the Supreme Council of the National Economy. The state monopoly of foreign trade was established.
In order to solve the food problem, a monopoly of the grain trade was declared in 1918, and from January 1919 surplus appropriation was introduced - the withdrawal of surplus grain and fodder from the peasantry according to the class principle (nothing from the poor, moderate from the middle peasant, a lot from the rich) ... A rationing system for the distribution of products, equalizing wages in kind, free use of housing, transport, and utilities were introduced. Commodity-money relations were curtailed.
In 1918, labor service was introduced for representatives of the former exploiting classes, and in 1920 - universal labor service. Forced mobilization of labor resources was carried out with the help of labor armies, sent to restore transport, construction work.
In the political sphere of the country during the period of "war communism" the undivided dictatorship of the RCP (b) was established, the activities of other parties fighting against it were prohibited. Their representatives were removed from the Soviets at all levels by organizing re-elections. Trade unions were placed under state and party control.
The extraordinary conditions on which the system of "military-communist" organization of society was based disappeared with the end of the civil war. The peasants began to revolt, demanding moderate taxes, freedom of trade, relations between town and country on an economic basis.
In the ruling party, the RCP (b), a debatable struggle unfolded for the choice of the course for the restoration and development of the national economy. Influential Trotskyist 2 the group defended a line on strengthening the militarization of labor, counting on the world proletarian revolution, international assistance of the European working class in the technical rearmament of Russia. But capitalism in the West has stabilized. One could only hope for the revival on one's own strength, natural resources. In these conditions, the Leninist leadership went on to carry out a set of reforms, which received the generalized name of a new economic policy (NEP).
The NEP was seen at first as a tactical departure from a direct orientation towards communism, and then as a possible path to socialism, as a domestic non-capitalist model of development. It was necessary to take into account that the Soviet government inherited a multi-structured economic system: state and private capitalism, a natural-patriarchal way of life, small-scale commodity production that prevailed in economic life, on which the peasantry, the bulk of the population, relied. The socialist sector was in its infancy.
The NEP policy was designed for the economic interaction of various economic structures on the basis of commodity-money relations regulated by the state, while maintaining a monopoly on large-scale industry. The strategic goal of one-party government is to allow private capitalist elements to revive the economy and create a powerful state-controlled sector of industry and agriculture, and then gradually economically and administratively displace and eliminate private capitalist entrepreneurship, create a socialist economic system based on public and collective-cooperative forms of ownership. Therefore, NEP was proclaimed "seriously and for a long time."
In practice, NEP began with the replacement of the surplus appropriation tax in kind. A clear limitation of the size of the seizure of agricultural products from peasants allowed them to freely sell surplus food in the markets under contracts, through the developing supply and marketing, consumer cooperation. To facilitate the expansion of trade between town and country, it was necessary to denationalize small and handicraft industries, to allow private entrepreneurship with the use of hired labor, and to adapt financial and tax regulators to them. In order to create a stable currency in 1922-1924. a monetary reform was carried out. It began with the release of a gold piece (its gold content was established at 7.74 g of pure gold). Banknotes were exchanged (one ducat for 60,000 sovznak). The State Bank bought the remaining sovznaks from the population. The gold ruble was valued on the world market above the British pound sterling and was equal to USD 5.14.
The introduction of a hard convertible currency in the country required the creation of a clear tax system, which was done. So, the agricultural tax was a maximum of 5% (fluctuated depending on the quality of the land, the number of livestock). In the city, a private owner paid 1.5% of the turnover and an additional tax to the local budget. The income tax was divided into the main one - all workers and employees who received more than 75 rubles paid. per month; progressive - with those who received additional income: "Nepmen" (traders, tenants, buyers, entrepreneurs), private doctors, lawyers, journalists. Under the NEP, self-financing began to be applied in production associations (trusts) within the framework of the state budget and fixed prices, or commercial profit at contractual prices.
The heyday of the NEP came in the mid-1920s, when the ideas of scientists - agrarian A.V. Chayanova, ND Kondratyev on the reconstruction of the system of agricultural cooperatives, similar to the pre-revolutionary ones (credit, processing and marketing of products, supply, consumer, industrial). They covered 18 of the 25 million peasant households. The land management work carried out made it possible to start rational organization of land use on a family-farm basis on 32 million hectares. As a result, the national economy of the country destroyed by the world and civil wars was in 1925-1926. restored. In agriculture, the gross harvest of grain exceeded the average annual harvest of 1909-1913. Food consumption has risen above pre-revolutionary levels. The experience and lessons of the NEP are instructive.
What are the reasons for the curtailment of the NEP since the end of the 1920s? Multistructural tradition russian economy, community-collectivist psychology among a significant part of the population simultaneously contributed to the development of both private capitalist and equalizing socialist relations under the conditions of the NEP. On the one hand, private restaurants and shops were opened, wholesale transactions were made on stock exchanges - the social stratum of the Nepmen was established. On the other hand, as the national economy was restored and developed, the positions of the factory working class were strengthened. In the countryside, the state began to encourage not private family-labor farming, but production cooperation of peasants, their voluntary association into partnerships for joint cultivation of the land, agricultural cartels socializing the main means of production.
The ensuing increase in taxes on large farms and the release of the poor from them led to the fact that wealthy peasants, trying to weaken the tax pressure, began to quickly divide up their yards and give part of their children and relatives. For this reason, by 1927, in comparison with the pre-revolutionary level, the process of fragmentation of peasant farms was accelerated by 2 times and, as a result, their marketability decreased. The grain procurements of 1928 failed. The state had to introduce a rationing system for food in the cities. The decline in the sale of grain abroad has halved the pre-revolutionary level of the supply of imported equipment necessary for the industrial modernization of industry.
The NEP economy did not escape under Soviet conditions the unemployment characteristic of market relations, which exceeded a million people, of whom 750 thousand were employees. They expressed solidarity in their rejection of the NEP with low-skilled workers, rural poor people who did not want to work on the basis of cost accounting, entrepreneurial risk and gravitated towards socialist equalization. At the end of the 1920s, the social stratification of society intensified, which made it possible for the country's leadership to put forward the slogan of an exacerbation of the class struggle in the city and countryside, the threat of "bourgeois restoration", and to take the line of curtailing the NEP.
By the 30s of the XIX century, Russia remained agrarian country ... Share peasants in the population was still about 90%. About half of them were serfs.
But by this time the possibilities for the development of a landlord economy based on serf labor had been exhausted. This situation became evidence of the coming crisis of the feudal-serf system.
First of all, it manifested itself in the next :
· Inefficiency of the serf economy.
The ruin of the landlord households ( by the middle of the 19th century, 54% of estates were pledged for debts).
· Strengthening the exploitation of serfs.
· Unprofitableness of serf manufactories.
· Rapid development of capitalist relations in the economy and society of Russia.
· Increase in the number of capitalist enterprises.
· The beginning of the industrial revolution.
· Strengthening the stratification of the peasantry.
· Growth in domestic trade.
· In general, the negative impact of the existing system of economy and government on the development of the Russian economy.
Restraining the development of the labor market ( primarily due to the preservation of serfdom).
· Weak support for non-noble entrepreneurship.
· Strict control over the economy by the state.
But the crisis of the feudal-serf system did not mean the collapse of the Russian economy. On the contrary, the 1920s – 1950s of the 19th century became a time of active development of Russian industry, trade, and agriculture.
The crisis of the feudal-serf system
The main feature of the Russian economy of this period was its complexity ... It was expressed in the existence of two different structures. Old - feudal and new - capitalist.
At the same time, the old and new structures did not exist separately, but interacted. This situation largely influenced the development of the Russian economy not only in the 20-50s of the XIX century, but also in the future.
Industry By the time of the accession of Nicholas I, Russia was not in the best condition. If in Western countries ( primarily Great Britain, France) by the 30s of the XIX century, there was a developed factory production, then in Russia the industrial revolution was just beginning.
An industrial revolution means transition from manual labor to machine labor, from manufactory to factory ... Its completion is considered to be the transition from an agrarian society to an industrial one.
In addition, the industrial revolution changed the internal structure of society. First of all, this was reflected in the appearance of two new classes:
Bourgeoisie - possessed ownership of the means of production (land, factories, capital). They subsisted on the income from this property.
Of the proletariat – hired workers for whom the main source of income was employment. They did not have private ownership of the means of production.
Started in Russia in the 30-40s of the XIX century industrial revolution had a number of differences from that in the Western countries. The main ones were:
Later onset than in many Western countries ( for example, in England the first factories appeared in the 60s XVIII century).
Implementation under the conditions of the dominance of the feudal-serf system (negatively affected its pace).
The slow formation of large business capital, in fact, the lack of growth of the bourgeoisie ( many of the first industrialists were serfs; they were forced to give most of their income to the landlords).
Lack of rapid growth proletarian class (shortage of workers, their low qualifications, seasonality due to the preservation of serfdom).
Implementation with the direct participation of the state, and not on a private initiative ( government orders, investment of government funds ).
Nevertheless, by the end of the 1850s, Russian industry achieved good performance.
If in 1825 year the country had more than 5 thousand enterprises... Then by the middle of the century they became about 15 thousand .
The number of workers increased from about 210 thousand to 565 thousand. Moreover, if in 1825 year civilians were about 55% of workers (about 110 thousand), then in the middle of the century there were 82 % (about 460 thousand).
Industrial development in Russia
During the 30-50s of the XIX century, the technical equipment of the Russian industry increased significantly.
If in 1830s Russia has purchased or produced about 7 thousand different machines. Then in 40s this figure has reached 16 thousand, in 50th – 84 thousand.
The growth of technical equipment in the Russian industry
During this period, Russia developed mechanical engineering... New industries have developed. First of all, sugar and cotton industry.
But at the same time, Russian industry is strongly lagged behind from the west. Stagnation was observed in metallurgy. If in the 18th century Russia was in first place in the world for the production of pig iron , then by the middle of the 19th century it switched to 8 .
About 80% of goods for the domestic market still produced manufactories or artisans.
One of the conditions for the successful modernization of Russia was the development of its transport system. Without good communication lines, it was impossible to establish cooperation between the regions of the huge country.
In view of this, in 1830s in Russia begins railroad construction.
In 1837, the first in the country was opened ( sixth in the world) Tsarskoye Selo railway ... She connected Petersburg and Tsarskoe Selo.
IN 1848 year began to act Warsaw-Vienna Railway .
It connected Warsaw with the Austro-Polish border.
IN 1851 year Petersburg-Moscow railway .
IN 1852 year started construction of the Petersburg-Varshavskaya railroad .
Transport development in Russia
The total length of railways in Russia in the middle of the 19th century was 1600 kilometers , which, given the size of the country, was a very small indicator ( for example, in England 14 thousand kilometers of tracks were laid, in France - 9 thousand).
By the middle of the 19th century, widespread shipping company... It was carried out on the large rivers of Russia, in the Baltic, in the Azov and Black seas.
IN 1849 year was founded Sormovsky plant, which produced steamers.
Along with industry and transport, great importance in Russia was given to development means of communication... First of all, telegraph .
Already by the 50s of the XIX century telegraph lines connected the cities of Central Russia and stretched to Europe. The presence of high-speed communication channels simplified the control of the authorities and troops. In just one hour ( unprecedented speed at that time) in St. Petersburg it was possible to receive news from Europe.
In agriculture Russian Empire in 20-50s of the XIX century began to actively develop capitalist relations ... Both peasants and landowners could no longer do without industrial or handicraft goods.
But in order to get them, money was needed that could be earned by selling their own products.
Agriculture of Russia
In view of this, some landowners ordered agricultural machines, new breeds of livestock, and cultivated plants from abroad. We used advanced farming techniques. But there were only such farms about 5 percent.
Most of the landowners ran their households as before. They received their main income by increasing the duties of serfs. And since it was most profitable to produce marketable bread, by the middle of the 19th century about 70% landlord peasants were transferred to corvee.
On the other hand, development commodity-money relations in the Russian countryside led to the property stratification of the peasantry. Along with the poor, appeared "Capitalist" peasants ... By investing in the development of Russian industry, trade, agriculture, they significantly helped the development of the country's economy.
By the 1850s, planted areas across the country increased by 1.5 times.
Due to the growing needs of industry, crops have expanded industrial crops - raw materials ( flax, hemp, tobacco, sugar beet). The sowing of wheat, the main item of grain export in Russia, has increased.
To provide food for the growing urban population, horticulture and livestock farming .
At the beginning of the reign of Nicholas I, the financial situation in Russia was very unstable. Assignments (paper money) were not provided with silver. Therefore, they were constantly depreciating. Depreciation of money ( inflation ) led to a catastrophic deficit in the Russian budget, which could ultimately lead to the collapse of the entire monetary system of the country.
Nicholas I understood the urgent need to reform the country's finances. The reform was entrusted to the Minister of Finance Egor Frantsevich Kankrun... Through his efforts in 1839-1843 money turnover Russia was put in order.
The main provisions of the monetary reform were as follows:
Recognition as the main means of settlements and payments in Russia silver ruble (about 18 grams of silver).
· Implementation of the receipt and issuance of funds by the treasury only in silver rubles.
· Issue of credit bank notes secured by silver.
· Gradual withdrawal from circulation of depreciated banknotes at the rate of three and a half rubles banknotes for one silver ruble.
As a result, we managed to streamline money circulation in Russia. For the first time in years the country's budget became deficit-free (his income exceeded his expenses).
The Russian economy received an incentive for development.
In the 20-50s of the 19th century, Russia's foreign trade increased. The total annual export of Russian goods by the middle of the century increased from 67 to 100 million rubles in silver. At the same time, Russia exported more than imported. By the middle of the century import was about 88 million rubles .
The main trade partners of Russia were: Great Britain (34% of Russian exports and imports), Germanic states (11%), France (10%), China (7%), Ottoman empire (5%), Persia (3%) and other countries (30%).
Main trade partners of Russia
By the middle of the 19th century, the composition of exports and imports of the Russian Empire had slightly changed. Imported into Russia mainly industrial and luxury goods... But the import of machinery and equipment has noticeably increased. The supply of raw materials also increased ( for example cotton).
At the same time, the export of iron and sail linen from Russia stopped.
Russian timber, leather, tallow, furs were still in demand.
The export of grain has increased significantly. The proceeds from its sale accounted for about 35% of all exports.
Changes in the composition of Russian exports and imports
Domestic trade in Russia by the middle of the 19th century strengthened its position. Its turnover exceeded the turnover of foreign trade more than three times.
Domestic trade was still carried out mainly through trade fairs.
The largest in the middle of the century was Nizhny Novgorod fair with a trade volume of 57 million rubles.
At the same time, store type of trade - sale of goods in constantly operating shops, markets. It will soon become the main trade in cities.
But the demand for manufactured goods under the rule of serfdom and because of the weakness of most peasant farms grew slowly.
This situation hindered both the country's industrial development and its trade.
Internal trade of Russia in the middle of the 19th century
By the middle of the 19th century in Russia, significantly increased urban population .
In 1811, the townspeople were 6,6 % from the entire population of the country ( about 2.8 million people ).
IN 1858 year there were already 9.5 % (about 5.5 million).
The largest cities of the empire remained St. Petersburg , where 530 thousand people lived by the middle of the century, Moscow with a population of 380 thousand.
Major cities were Vilno, Kiev, Kursk, Riga, Warsaw, Nizhny Novgorod, Saratov, Kharkov, Astrakhan, Yaroslavl, Odessa, Kazan .
By the second half of the 19th century, a large number of new cities... They were mainly located in border lands. Among them are Novochersassk, Nalchik, Anapa, Novorossiysk, Kislovodsk, Makhachkala.
Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, Kyakhta, Chita received the status of the city.
The cities of the Russian Empire in the middleXIX century
Thus, the development of the Russian economy under Nicholas I finally showed that the feudal-serf system is in a deep crisis.
In the 30-40s in the Russian Empire began industrial revolution, which had significant differences from that in the West.
By the middle of the 19th century, Russian industry had achieved great success, but, nevertheless, it lagged far behind the West.
In the 1830s, Russia began railroad construction.
Russian agriculture this period continued to develop in an extensive way.
Financial kankrin reform allowed to put in order the money circulation in Russia.
In Russian foreign trade, exports prevailed over imports, but the country was still exporting mainly raw materials.
By the middle of the 19th century, the number of the urban population in Russia had almost doubled.
Sections: History and social studies
- educational: the formation of students' understanding of the crisis of the feudal-serf system, conviction of the historical necessity of the fall of serfdom in Russia and the replacement of the obsolete feudal system with a more progressive one - capitalist;
- developing: develop students' skills to classify, analyze sources, reason, respond to problematic issues;
- educational: continue to develop group work skills.
Lesson type: lesson in learning new material.
Basic concepts: “Industrial revolution”, “capitalism”, “feudal-serf system”.
Equipment: multimedia projector, blackboard diagrams, historical sources.
During the classes
1. Organizational moment
a) welcoming speech of the teacher, emotional attitude to the lesson.
2. Studying a new topic.
1. Contradictions in economic development.
Introductory speech of the teacher.
Guys, we continue to study the history of Russia in the 19th century. And I'll start the lesson by reading an excerpt from a poem known to you, written by N. A. Nekrasov. And your task is to determine what period of Russian history the author describes.
Quite right. This poem is called The Railroad. To what period of development of Russia does the construction of the first railroad belong? So, the topic of our lesson, which you have identified yourself, is "Social and economic development of Russia in the 20-50s." Write the lesson topic in your notebook. And today in the lesson we will determine the features of the development of Russia in this period.
Throughout the lesson, we will work with the concepts of “capitalist system” and “feudal-serf system”. Let's remember:
What system do we call capitalist? What are its characteristic features?
How is capitalism different from feudalism, why is it a more progressive system?
Explanation of the teacher.
A feature of the socio-economic development of Russia in this period is the simultaneous existence of two economic structures: the dominant feudal-serf and actively developing capitalist. The very fact of the development of capitalism in Russia testified to the crisis of the feudal-serf system. Let's look at the main features of the crisis of the feudal-serf system. Pay attention to the board. Historians identify 3 traits.
Now we are going to work in groups. Each group is offered cards. It is necessary to select the characteristics of one of the proposed features.
After completing the assignment in groups, representatives of each perform this work at the blackboard.
Checking the job.
You should get the following scheme.
Quite right.
So, guys, what characterizes the crisis of the feudal-serf system?
Conclusion: the feudal-serf system was in crisis. This manifested itself in the ruin of many landlord farms and serf factories. In addition, serfdom hindered the development of capitalism in Russia, since there was a shortage of hired workers, low incomes of landlord and peasant farms - hindered the development of the market for goods. Write in a notebook the first feature of the development of Russia in this period.
Teacher: However, these phenomena did not mean at all an economic decline or collapse of the country's economy. On the contrary, the 30-50s were a time of development for both industry and agriculture. At this time, an industrial revolution began in Russia. This is the second feature of Russia's socio-economic development. Students write it down in a notebook.
2. The beginning of the industrial revolution.
Conversation with the class.
Guys, remember what process is called an industrial revolution?
An industrial revolution is a process of transition from a manufacturing industry to a factory production, i.e., the replacement of manual labor with machine labor.
Teacher: And now, using specific examples, we will consider the features of the development of the industrial revolution.
In the course of our work, you fill out a table in your notebooks.
We will now continue to work in groups. You will be working with historical sources.
Group 1 will consider the development of the industry.
Group 2 will deal with the issue with which we began our lesson - with the emergence of railways.
Group 3 will analyze sources related to the development of agriculture.
3. Industry development.
Checking the completed assignments of students is accompanied by the teacher's comments.
Teacher: By the end of the reign of Nicholas I, the number of industrial enterprises in Russia increased significantly.
So first group, we give you the floor. Guys, do not forget to write down the traits in the table.
Assignment: analyze a fragment of the first and second documents and answer the question "How does the number of factories and the number of factory workers change over the years", make the appropriate conclusion. ...
Years | Number of all factories | Workers |
1804 | 2423 | 95 202 |
1814 | 3731 | 169 530 |
1825 | 5261 | 210 567 |
1832 | 5656 | 272 490 |
1842 | 6930 | 455 827 |
1850 | 9843 | 517 679 |
1855 | 14. 367 | More than 800,000 |
(Semenov A. V. Study of historical information about Russian foreign trade and industry from the middle of the 17th century to 1858. - St. Petersburg, Ch. 3).
Growth in the number of factory workers
Years | Civilians | Possessional | ||
in thous. | in % | in thous. | in % | |
1767 | 17,8 | 39,2 | 21,9 | 48,1 |
1799 | 33,8 | 41,1 | 33,5 | 41,0 |
1804 | 45,6 | 47,9 | 30,2 | 31,7 |
1815 | 95,4 | 55,2 | 29,7 | 17,2 |
1825 | 114,5 | 54,4 | 29,4 | 14,0 |
1860 | 493,7 | 87,3 | 11,9 | 2,1 |
(Essays on the economic history of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. Collection of articles / Ed. By M. K. Rozhkova. M., 1959)
Conclusion: based on the data in the tables, it can be seen that, compared with 1804, the number of factories and plants increased 6 times, and a sharp jump occurred in the period from 1832 to 1942 and 1842 to 1855. Consequently, the number of workers employed in production is increasing. The ratio of civilian and possessory workers is changing. The number of civilian workers has increased dramatically since 1825, and at the same time the number of possessory workers has been decreasing.
Teacher: Since the mid-30s. railway construction began. Why did the question about the construction of railways arise? Working with the source.
Why did the question about railways arise?
It is no coincidence that the manager of the St. Petersburg office, Pavel Danilovich Danilov, became so keenly interested in the Cherepanovs' venture. Other times have come in this world! In the past 18th century, Russia ranked first in the world in pig iron smelting. But now, in the 19th century, tremendous changes have taken place. England is significantly ahead of our country. Merkla is the glory of the famous Demidov iron with the mark “Old Sable”. What has happened over the years? After all, the Urals have not become scarce in ores, forests for burning coal are an immense ocean, and golden hands that can melt iron have not died out on the distant Stone Belt !. ... Meanwhile, technical backwardness and hard labor conditions of serf labor had a disastrous effect on the development of the Ural industry. In addition, the primitive muddy dirt roads became a great obstacle to trade. Due to the high cost and slowness of transportation for all household items, prices have grown incredibly. In the Urals, a pood of iron cost 89 kopecks at the factory, and delivered to Nizhny Novgorod at the Makaryevskaya fair sold for two kopecks at a ruble ... That is why in the west of our state peasant savrasks were rarely shod: it was not possible for an impoverished Russian peasant to acquire an expensive horseshoe. The wheels of the carts were not covered with iron tires, the axles were wooden. The price of bread rose even more strikingly. In Saratov, rye cost about a ruble, while in the Baltics, its price rose above four rubles.
Delivery of food by barges by waterway also did not meet the country's needs. Transportation of goods to the capital along the Volga lasted two navigation. Usually baroque caravans defended in Rybinsk or Tver, and in the spring followed on. It was not profitable for the merchants: the cargo waiting for a new navigation for six months lay as dead capital.
… Newspapers and magazines were full of articles about steam transportation. Opponents of the railways were ministers, landowners and even the chief manager of communications, Tol. He stated that "in Russia, fast and urgent delivery is mostly unnecessary."
Danilov, the Demidov ruler, did not understand much of what was happening. But one thing was clear to him: the construction of railways would require a huge amount of iron. And where to get it, if not in the Urals? That's what Demidov's factories exist to supply iron! Therefore, Danilov so willingly approved the plans of the Cherepanovs.
Fedorov E. Cherepanovs // Fedorov E. Selected works.
L., 1958.Vol. 1.
Questions:How do you assess the need to build railways in Russia? Who, in your opinion, could be opposed to their construction?
Checking the job.
Teacher: On October 10, 1837, the official opening of the Tsarskoye Selo railway took place. The steam-powered train covered the distance from St. Petersburg to Tsarskoye Selo in 35 minutes. At first, steam-powered trains ran only on holidays, and on other days - on horseback. From April 4, 1838, the movement to Tsarskoe Selo became exclusively steam. Six steam locomotives, bought abroad, were working on the road. Each of them had its own name: "Agile", "Arrow", "Bogatyr", "Elephant", "Eagle", "Lion". On May 22, 1838, traffic began on the Petersburg-Pavlovsk railway line. And in 1851 the Nikolayevskaya railway was opened, connecting Petersburg with Moscow. However, remote areas of the country were still connected to the center by waterways.
And yet, the beginning of the industrial revolution could not yet lead to overcoming the technical and economic lag of Russia from a number of Western European countries, which arose in the late 18th - early 20th centuries.
4. Agriculture.
The peasant, or otherwise the agrarian, question is the main, always burning question of Russian reality. Under Nicholas I, the land in its bulk is still not the property of the peasants who work on it. The famous Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky in one of his articles cites the data of the VIII revision, made in 1836. According to these data, the population of Russia was about 52 million people. The rural population still prevailed in number over the rest, namely, it included up to 25 million serfs who belonged either to nobles, or to some charitable or educational institutions, or to private factories and plants; state peasants with appanage (palace) peasants were considered 17 million.
All other classes, therefore, accounted for 9-10 million.
Since the principle of serfdom dominated everywhere, the state peasants treated the noble police officers or crown officials in almost the same way as the serfs treated their master. Serfs continue to be the subject of sale and purchase. The peasants fought this injustice as best they could.
Work with documents.
Question:What does the dynamics of the peasant movement in Russia indicate in the first half of the 19th century? (The wave of protest was growing and threatened to overwhelm the whole country).
Teacher: Nicholas I realized the need to resolve the peasant issue in order to prevent a revolutionary explosion, created more than ten secret committees that tried to solve the problem without affecting the foundations of serfdom.
So on April 2, 1842, Nicholas I issued a decree on "obliged peasants", developed by Pavel Dmitrievich Kiselev.
Working with a document.
Decree on obligated peasants. 1842 g.
Desiring, in the general types of state benefits, so that, upon the conclusion of such conditions, the land belonging to the landowners, as the patrimonial property of the nobility, would be protected from alienation from the possession of the noble families, we recognized it for the good ... to leave to those landowners who themselves wish to conclude with the peasants by their own, by mutual agreement, contracts on such a basis that, without embarrassment by decisions on free farmers, the landowners retain their full right of patrimonial property to the land, with all its land and wealth ..., and the peasants received from them plots of land for use for the agreed duties ...:
- the duties of the peasants, in favor of the landlords, can be determined in contracts by monetary quitrent, the cultivation of the landlord's land, or other work.
- In the event that the peasants fail to fulfill the obligations they accept under the agreement, they are forced to do so by the zemstvo police, under the leadership of the district leaders of the nobility and under the supreme supervision of the provincial government.
Question:Whose interests did this decree express? What did the peasants receive according to this decree? What do you think, how many landowners took advantage of this decree, freeing the peasants from serf bondage?
Teacher: Before the reform of 1861, only a little more than 27 thousand peasants were freed. But the use of civilian labor did not receive widespread development. One of the reasons is the lack of free working hands. Most of the landowners ran their households the old way. They considered the only means of increasing income to increase the rent and corvee. And this led to the ruin of more and more peasant farms, and in turn led to the ruin of the landlord farms.
However, the development of commodity-money relations steadily led to an increase in the incentives for the development of peasant production. The peasantry is stratifying in the countryside. Along with the poor, there is a stratum of “capitalist” peasants - peasants who had capital and are engaged in entrepreneurship. They were engaged in trade, invested money in production, were engaged in usury () lent money with the collection of interest from the debtor on the amount provided). Many of the wealthy peasants were ransomed to freedom. The entrepreneurial dynasties of Morozov, Garelin, and others can serve as striking examples.
5. Results of socio-economic development.
Teacher: In order to summarize the results of the socio-economic development of Russia, you need to refer to the table that you yourself filled out in the course of work in the lesson. What can you say about the economic development of the country? What features are there more in the Russian economy of this period: positive or negative?
Output:By the mid-1950s, Russian industry was developing at a fairly rapid pace, technical innovations were being introduced more actively, and trade was developing. However, agriculture lagged noticeably behind industry due to the domination of serfdom. The crisis of the obsolete system was reflected in the spontaneous protest of the peasants. All the successes and positive indicators in the country's economy reflected not the stability of the existing system, but its decline. Life insistently demanded the abolition of serfdom.
Homework:paragraph 11, independently study the issues: finance, trade.
Summing up the lesson.
Reflection.Students are encouraged to put white or blue circles on the teacher's table, characterizing the emotional state of students during the lesson.
After the era of reforms 60-70-ies of the XIX century. Alexander II began a gradual return to the old, to the strengthening of the estate system and autocracy. Alexander III (1881 - 1894) believed that he was returning the country from the dangerous path of reform (the policy of his father, Alexander II) to healthy historical, time-tested foundations (the policy of his grandfather, Nicholas I).The economic development of the country during this period had its own specifics: Russia faced acute problems of radical renewal of the most important spheres of society. The difficulty was that none of the previously implemented reforms was carried out comprehensively and consistently; as a rule, the reforms were followed by counter-reforms.
Capitalist modernization intensified in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. The comparatively high rates of industrial development, the monopoly restructuring of large-scale industry, transport and credit put Russia on a par with the advanced countries of the West.
In modern historiography, tsarism is characterized as a regime that was forced to begin the modernization of the country, but failed to cope with its consequences. It turned out to be impossible to modernize the autocracy without destroying it. The growing contradictions within the country, examples of the fall of absolutist regimes in Europe forced the autocracy to become more and more conservative and to take away or significantly restrict the previously promised concessions, i.e. go to counter-reforms, which led to changes not so much in the economy, but in the political and social spheres... They were carried out during the reign of Alexander III, in the 1880s and 1890s. This made it possible to somewhat stabilize the situation in the country after the assassination of Alexander II, but did not bring real peace.
The accession to the throne of Nicholas II (1894) awakened hopes among those who strove for reforms. The tsar received projects, petitions, notes in which it was proposed to take such values \u200b\u200bof modern industrial developed countries, as the separation of religion from the state, a guarantee of fundamental freedoms, the establishment of new authorities, national sovereignty. Nicholas II, speaking in 1895 before representatives of the zemstvos, called these hopes "senseless dreams." At the turn of the century, the tsarist government was worried about only one thing: to preserve the autocracy at all costs.
The government took an ambivalent position in relation to the capitalist development of the country. The most consistent supporters of the industrial modernization of Russia were grouped around the champion of the industrialization of the country, South South Africa. Witte (Minister of Finance from 1892, Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers from 1903). who believed that Russia has unique natural resourcesbut they are dead weight. For the good of Russia, which is backward in comparison with the West, it is necessary to develop productive forces, and above all to develop its processing industry and transport. Over the thirty post-reform years, the length of the railways has increased 30 times. Witte achieved the resumption of the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway (postponed by his predecessors due to lack of funds), seeing in this not only a military-strategic benefit, but also a way of developing the productive forces of Siberia.
Grandiose projects required funds. They were obtained by increasing indirect taxes, which in the 90s of the XIX century. increased by 42.7%. On the initiative of Witte, a wine monopoly was introduced, which provided the main income in the state budget... Tributary money from abroad was facilitated by the introduction of the "gold standard". The government took large loans abroad, while the money went exclusively to the development of production. At the same time, the state encouraged private entrepreneurship, especially favorable conditions were created for the domestic industry. These measures were a continuation of the policy of Witte's predecessors (I.A.Vyshnegradskiy and others), and although he was not a lone reformer, his activities met with opposition in the government. Witte was accused of destroying economic foundations, excessive enthusiasm for industry, and the sale of Russia to foreign bankers.
Another important issue on which there was a struggle within the ruling elite was legal position peasantry. Witte spoke in favor of equalizing the rights of the peasants with other estates, free exit from the community and the transition to backyard agriculture, i.e. in essence, he proposed a set of measures that anticipated the future Stolypin agrarian reform.
After the resignation of the Witte cabinet (April 1906) and a short tenure of I.L. Goremykina, its chairman was P.A. Stolypin (July 1906), who in his keynote speech (March 1907) declared: "Our Fatherland, transformed by the will of the monarch, must turn into a legal state."
Perfectly understanding the need for economic modernization in Russia. Stolypin, unlike Witte, focused his efforts not on industry and finance, but on the agrarian question. While still in the post of governor of Saratov, Stolypin argued that communal order hinders the development of agriculture. Heading the cabinet, Stolypin insisted on the immediate promulgation of a law (1906), which meant a radical revolution in agrarian policy autocracy: the peasants received the right to leave the community, to consolidate their individual allotment into property; the state rendered every assistance to private owners; provincial and district land management commissions used all methods - from propaganda of reforms to direct pressure on rural gatherings; surplus allotment land was given to the peasants either free of charge or at a nominal price.
The opportunity to become full-fledged owners of the land attracted many peasants. Instead of scattered strips, the peasant received land in one place - the so-called cut. Some of these owners left the village and settled on farms.
The government relied, as the prime minister said, "not on the poor and drunk, but on the strong and strong." Private property was intended to become the best antidote to revolutionary sentiments. The resettlement policy was an integral part of the agrarian reform: thousands of peasants were resettled from European Russia to Siberia and Kazakhstan. The Stolypin reform was met ambiguously in society, it caused disagreements in the government camp.
Objectively and historically, the reform was progressive. It was carried out "from above", but did not run counter to natural processes in the Russian countryside, it was aimed at creating a highly efficient farm. In the distant future, it could lead to the final ousting of landlord ownership.
But Stolypin managed to only partially realize his plans. First, the reform was carried out by a bureaucratic apparatus capable of ruining any idea at its root; secondly, large-scale plans required a significant amount of time, which Russia no longer had1. In addition, the reformers did not take into account the vitality of the communal order, the desire for equalization among the communal peasants. But the main flaw of the reform, from the point of view of the opposition - the Cadets and the Socialists - was that the landlord's land ownership remained intact.
Stolypin also proposed to adopt a number of laws to ensure individual rights. But the implementation of these projects was not easy. To a certain extent, Stolypin repeated the fate of Witte. At the beginning of the summer of 1911, Stolypin worked out a project for further reforms, the essence of which was to take the second step towards turning Russia into constitutional state (the first was made during the era of the great reforms of Alexander II (1860 - 1870).
An analysis of his program shows that, for all its progressiveness, Stolypin conceived of Russia's transformation within the framework of the old bureaucratic system. The essence of his reforms was to strengthen the executive power and the creation of new ministries, although he understood that even these moderate reforms would encounter resistance from conservatives, which did happen. Stolypin's projects were not even made public.
The last decade of the autocracy's existence is the period when the country finally took the capitalist tracks. Political modernization lagged behind changes in the economic sphere, which was traditional for Russia. In a historically compressed period of time (1905-1914), a familiar pattern was repeated: first, the denial of the reform itself, then forced reforms in the context of a socio-political crisis, and, finally, the curtailment of the reform after the stabilization of the situation. Thus, capitalism, which had established itself in the Russian economy, was never able to completely transform pre-capitalist structures. In particular, the capitalist transformation of agriculture was not completed, and private ownership of land was not finally established as the dominant form of land tenure. In the country, until 1917, communal land tenure continued to play a huge role.
It should also be noted that the severity of the ripening economic problems due to the socio-political crisis, rivalry in the international arena, the uneven nature of economic development.
The common cause of the protracted crisis of autocracy in the late XIX - early XX century. was the failure of his attempts to adapt to the developing capitalist relations without changing his nature. And this was one of the deepest contradictions in the Russian reality of that time. The crisis of Russian society in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. put as the main question about the ways of further development of the country.
"History of Economic Thought" - general characteristics institutional direction. Reforming capitalism. Galbraith, Heilbroner, G. Myrdal C. Pierce J. Vol. 1. 3. Huseynov RA Economic history. The concept of "institutional political Economy"Was introduced in 1916 american economist W. Hamilton. M. Clarke, J. J. Hobson, T. Veblen, Commons, W. Mitchell, R. Eli, J.
"Adam Smith" - 4. Lectures on Jurisprudence (1766). Smith formulated the concepts of "economic man" and "natural order." In 1751, Smith was appointed professor of logic at the University of Glasgow. 5. Research on the nature and causes of the wealth of nations (1776). Classical political economy. Short biography.
"Schools of Economics" - Post Keynesianism. Economics schools and directions. Marxist theory. Monetarism. Functional direction. Neoclassical synthesis. Contemporary domestic economists. Supply theory. Reproductive direction. Keynesianism. Institutional direction. Labor economics. New institutional theory.
"History of Economics" - Economic views of P.N. Tkachev and M.A.Bakunin. The concept of populist propagandists. Economic ideas and the evolution of populism. Lavrov Pyotr Lavrovich (1823 - 1900). The economic program of the liberals populists 80-90. Bakunin took an active part in the revolutionary life of Europe. Vasily Pavlovich Vorontsov (1847-1918).
"Nobel Prize in Economics" - Peter Diamond. Requirements for candidates. Christopher Pissarides. Laureate selection process. Kenneth Arrow. Laureate selection process. Ronald Coase. Dale Mortensen. Leonid Gurvich. Laureate. Interesting Facts... Paul Krugman. Faces. Nobel Prize in Economics. Empirical research.
"The Economy of Antiquity" - Reforms to eliminate debt slavery. Plato. Ancient Greece... Development of Athens. Aristotle. Coinage. Varro Mark Terence. He divided the economic life of people into two spheres: economics and chrematistics. There were few slaves in agriculture. The main branch of the economy of Rome was agriculture. State structure.
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