Depending on their economic. Depending on the level of economic development
developing or Third World countries(sometimes they are called agrarian, the basis of the economy is agriculture, the sale of minerals, that is, the raw materials industry is developed, etc.);
industrial (the basis of the economy of these states is industry);
post-industrial (these are modern developed states in which a scientific and technological revolution has taken place; the main wealth of these states is created in the service sector, in the industrial sphere).
Depending on the form of government of the state
Oligarchy, that is, the power of a few persons;
Polyarchy, that is, the rule of the majority; another name is liberal democracy.
Monarchy, that is, the power of one person;
Republic:
Jamahiriya.
Depending on the dominant ideology of the state
ideologized;
deideologized.
Deideologized (secular) states- there is no official ideology here. In ideologized states, the entire functioning of the state is determined by the dominant ideology. In particular, a person's ability to participate in the activities of the state, etc., depends on his views on the state ideology. In de-ideologized states, ideological pluralism is proclaimed, that is, the ability to preach and develop any ideology. The state can prohibit extreme forms of ideology, such as racist ones.
Part two
Types of law
Type of law is called a set of the most important signs of law generated by a certain era. As in the theory of the state, in the theory of law there are two approaches to typology: formational and civilizational.
In the formational approach, the most important factor that determines the type of law is its class essence, that is, the interests of which class it serves. According to the Marxist theory of social development, each of the class socio-economic formations - slaveholding, feudal, capitalist and socialist - corresponds to a certain historical type of law.
Historical type of law - it is a set of the most essential features inherent in the legal system of a particular socio-economic formation. There are four historical types of law: slave, feudal, bourgeois, socialist.
Slave law
Slave law - it is the legalized will of the slave-owning class. The main tasks of slave-owning law were: the consolidation of the private property of the slave-owners on the means of production and slaves, as well as the protection of the foundations of the slave-owning state system.
The legal history of the ancient world knows two main slave-owning state-legal models: ancient Eastern and ancient. The first model was extended to the territories of states that existed in the 4th millennium BC. - 1st floor. 1st millennium AD on the Asian and African continents (Egypt, Babylonia, India, China, etc.), the second - in Ancient Greece and in Ancient Rome. The main difference between these models was that the ancient Eastern legal system was built on the predominance of the state over the individual, and the ancient, on the contrary, on the freedom of the individual and its autonomy from the state. This freedom was possible due to the widespread use of private property in the ancient states. It was private property that provided citizens with a certain independence from the state, while in the countries of the Ancient East, property belonged to the state and was associated with a position: in order to become an owner, it was necessary to occupy a certain place in the state hierarchy.
The difference between the two legal systems of slave law was not absolute, but relative. The ancient Eastern and ancient legal systems had more similarities than differences:
1) both systems legally enshrined class-class inequality, that is, inequality not only between free and slaves, but also between individual groups of free people;
2) both systems were closely related to religion. The concepts of sinful and criminal in many respects coincided, religious norms served as a source of legal norms, priests often stood at the origins of justice;
3) the legal norms enshrined in most of the legislative monuments of both systems were records of specific cases from judicial practice - incidents, or instructions for judges did not contain general rules behavior and were of a casuistic nature. Of decisive importance for legal actions was the observance of a certain form of their commission;
4) both systems did not know the division of law into branches;
5) with the exception of Roman private law, all ancient law was characterized by a low level of legal technique: no strict legal terminology was developed, legislators used everyday language.
The pinnacle of slave law was Roman law. It was divided into private and public. The classical distinction between public and private law was given by the Roman jurist Ulpian, who wrote: “Public law is that which refers to the position of the Roman state; private - which relates to the benefit of individuals ”. Roman law was distinguished by the highest level of legal technique, accuracy of wording, validity of decisions, concreteness, practicality, vitality. It reached the highest level of development in the regulation of property relations, primarily property relations. Even after the fall of the Roman Empire, Roman private law continued to exist, exerting a tremendous influence on the legislation of European countries (in particular, during the formation and development of bourgeois states), on legal thought and the legal history of mankind.
Feudal law
Feudal law represented the will of the feudal class that dominated in the Middle Ages, erected into law. Its main task was to legalize and regulate the property rights of feudal lords to land and other means of production, to ensure their political and economic domination in medieval society. Feudal law was characterized by the following features:
1) the main place in feudal law was occupied by the norms that regulated land relations, since it was the land that was the main wealth in the Middle Ages;
2) feudal law was a privilege law that consolidated the inequality of various classes of medieval society. The social status of a person was determined in accordance with the place that he occupied in the feudal hierarchy. For each estate, its own court was created, only the peasants were subject to the court of the master, since they were outside the feudal hierarchy. The search (inquisition) process dominated, built on a system of formal evidence, of which the most perfect evidence was the confession of the accused himself. The testimony was taken into account taking into account the social status of the witness;
3) feudal law is the right of the strong. It openly recognized violence as a source of law (primarily on the part of the feudal lord in relation to the peasant);
4) feudal law was inherent particularism, i.e. absence unified system rights across the country. The law was fragmented, local acts of individual feudal lords and local customs prevailed;
5) like the law of the ancient world, feudal law retained a close connection with religion;
6) feudal law did not know the division into branches of law. Its constituent parts were manorial law, city law, commercial law, canon law and royal law.
With the development of commodity-money relations in feudal society, feudal law borrowed a number of institutions and norms of Roman law. This process is called the reception of Roman law. Started in the Middle Ages, it continued in modern times - the era of the formation of bourgeois relations.
Bourgeois law
Bourgeois law formed in the period of the XVII-XIX centuries. and represented the will of the bourgeois class, erected into law. In legal science today, this right is also called modern law, since in its basic features it operates to this day. Bourgeois law is characterized by:
1) secular nature is a right that is not related to religion;
2) high legal technique and the creation of an extensive sectoral system of law;
3) separation of rights into private and public;
4) recognition of the law as the main source of law. The main task of bourgeois law is the protection of capitalist property in land and the preservation of the main means of production in the hands of the bourgeoisie.
Socialist law
According to Marxist theory socialist law represents at the first stage - the stage of the formation and development of the socialist state - the will of the proletariat, peasants and working intelligentsia, erected into law, and at the second stage, the stage of developed socialism, the will of the entire people elevated to law. It is not eternal: having emerged together with the state as a class institution, socialist law will wither away with it. In reality, socialist law was of a declarative nature and was subordinated to the state.
Currently, the formational approach to the typology of law is under serious criticism. The understanding of law solely as the will of a single, ruling class, elevated to the law, is outdated. Modern legal science sees in law the ideas of society about rightful and unlawful, permitted and forbidden, fixed by the state. Law is not an instrument of class domination, but a means of achieving social compromise. At the same time, the civilizational approach to the typology of law orients researchers to study the specifics of the law of each civilization. However, such a methodology does not allow us to identify common features and patterns of development of the legal development of mankind and to model a single classification. Therefore, modern legal science, studying the history of law, prefers such scientific categories as the legal system and the legal family to the concept of “type of law”.
Occupation vocabulary
Canon law - the right of the Christian church. Manorial law - a set of legal norms that governed relations in the feudal estate between peasants and feudal lords.
Formal evidence system - the procedure for legal proceedings, in which the value of each evidence is determined by law and depends on the social status and religion of the witness.
Question number 2 part two
Economic science, based on the analysis of economic practice, distinguishes several types economic cycles... Austrian economistSchumpeterproposed the classification of economic cycles depending on their duration. The economic cycles have been named after scientists who have devoted special research to this problem.
So, business cycles are usually classified according to the degree of their duration. Based on this criterion distinguish short-term, medium-term and long-term cycles.
TO short-term (small) cycles include cyclical phenomena lasting 3-3.5 years. These cycles are called Kitchin cycles ... Small cycles arise in connection with the formation of an imbalance between supply and demand for the market consumer goods. The elimination of such imbalances requires about 3 years, and thus the duration of this economic cycle is laid.
TO medium term cycles include the so-called industrial(or classic) loops ( Zhuglyar's cycles ) and construction cycles ( blacksmith cycles ).
Duration medium-term industrial cycles is 8-12 years old. The industrial cycle is associated with the renewal of fixed assets and, accordingly, with investments. Renewal of fixed assets and investments give impetus to the development of this cycle. It is believed that the industrial cycle is associated with an imbalance of supply and demand, but not in the market for consumer goods, but in the market for means of production. The elimination of this imbalance requires the creation and implementation of new technology, which usually occurs at intervals of 8-12 years.
Medium term construction cycles have nduration 15–20 years, during which the renovation of residential buildings and industrial facilities takes place. Theyassociated with housing construction and the situation on the market for certain types of structures, in particular with fluctuations in supply and demand in the housing market and in the market for structures. Pessimistic and optimistic sentiments of people are of no small importance here.
TO long-term cycles include Kondratieff cycles , it comes about the so-called long waves of Kondratyev(45-50 years old). It is believed that approximately once every 45-50 years, all the cycles discussed above coincide in their crisis phase, overlapping each other. Scientists-economists associate the existence of long waves with many factors - with major scientific and technical discoveries, demographic processes and processes in agricultural production, with the accumulation of capital to create new infrastructure in the economy.
In addition to the criterion of duration, there are many principles that make it possible to classify economic cycles: by scope (industrial and agricultural); by the specifics of manifestation (oil, food, energy, raw materials, environmental, currency, etc.); by forms of deployment (structural, sectoral); on a spatial basis (national, international).
If the normal course of the process of social reproduction is interrupted by a crisis, this means a difficult transitional state economic system, marking the beginning of the next business cycle. A similar pattern is characteristic of the development of a market economy. It should be remembered that any crisis causes imbalance in economic systems.
In this regard, economic crises can be classified based onthe extent of the imbalance, by the regularity of imbalance and by the nature of the violation of the proportions of reproduction.
By the scale of imbalance the economy is characterized by crises general covering all national economy, and partial arising in any particular sphere or branch of the national economy.
By the regularity of imbalance crises happen periodic, i.e., repeating regularly after a certain period of time, intermediate(these crises usually do not become the beginning of the next economic cycle and are interrupted at some stage of their development) and irregular arising for specific reasons.
By the nature of the violation of the proportions of the structure of social reproduction allocate overproduction crises(imbalance between supply and demand in the market when the amount of supply exceeds the amount of demand) and underproduction crisis(this is also an imbalance between supply and demand, but of the opposite nature - here the amount of demand will exceed the amount of supply).
Economic dependence- a state in which market objects, their development and have a close relationship, the violation of which leads to serious consequences for both parties. In scale modern economy all states and objects are in one way or another dependent on each other. This is reflected in the need to sell raw materials and finished products on the world market, as well as in the presence of foreign capital in many industries.
Economic dependence and ways of development of the state
In fact, economic dependence is a term that characterizes modern relations in the market. Despite the desire of the government of each state for political sovereignty, none of them seeks to limit economic ways, and export of products, and business relations with foreign investors.
A typical example of an autonomous, "closed" and independent path economic development are the consequences of the collapse of the Soviet Union. The country behind the "iron curtain" at a certain moment was unable to meet its needs and go according to the planned development plan. No less sad is the fate of the colonial states of the Third World, which were subjected to isolation as an experiment.
No one has yet succeeded in creating a successful closed model of the economy, so the main task is not gaining economic independence, but ensuring international economic security- conditions under which any of the states will not be inflicted deliberate damage from other market participants.
Levels of economic dependence
There are a number of factors that determine the level of economic dependence, among which the level of development of the subject is in the first place. Young emerging firms and rapidly developing industrial powers are more in need of capital inflows and the presence of stable sales markets. Thus, the imposition of a trade embargo on China could have caused the total destruction of its economy, and all other powers would have suffered significant damage.
The partner states that have divided the spheres of production and have clearly defined the priorities of supplies (China and Hong Kong, Russia and Belarus, Japan and the United States) are also in close economic interconnection.
The most significant factors determining the level of economic dependence of partners are:
The need for investment
Economic benefits and loans provided by a stronger and more stable power
Diversification of risks guaranteed by trading
Export of a single commodity defining the country as a whole
Geography and climate, availability of natural resources
The most vulnerable becomes, forced to maintain a monopoly on one product. Price change for commodity exchange or a decrease in demand can provoke dire consequences for the entire country.
Not only partners and developing countries, whose enterprises require large investments, are in economic dependence, but also entities with a similar direction. A typical example is the United States and Germany, uncoordinated changes in the economic direction of one of the powers can upset the economic equilibrium of the other.
The economic interdependence of a number of states makes it necessary to reconcile each change in the banking and credit systems, taxation and cash flows.
International forms of partnership
In one harness, the economies of several powers often end up not by chance, but according to the chosen line economic policy, organizations international forms cooperation. The placement of industries or industries of narrow specialization on the territory of one state with subsequent stable supplies to the international one is called international specialization.
Most often, such trust is due to the presence of scientific and technical potential, geographical and climatic features, and the comfort of accommodation.
International specialization significantly increases the competitiveness of the manufactured product in the market and is characterized by a number of factors:
Inflow of investments in production
Equipped with innovative equipment
Development of unique technologies
Highly qualified employees of an enterprise of international importance
International cooperation is a form of economic interaction in which enterprises take part in the production of the final product different countries... Detailed production followed by assembly becomes a characteristic form of this relationship.
Economic dependence is a typical characteristic of the modern market, which has a number of positive properties, such as the formation of a system of international settlements, regulation of prices in the market, dynamic development and implementation of new technologies. The most important issue of international cooperation remains ensuring the consistency and security of interaction.
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Expenses state budget RF.
State budget expenditures is funds directed to financial security tasks and functions of the state and local government.
All expenses can be divided into the following groups:
§ military;
§ economic;
§ for social needs;
§ on foreign policy activities;
Thus, the costs go to:
governmental support individual industries;
financing:
Social and cultural events,
Defense of the country,
Law enforcement,
International cooperation,
Repayment and service public debt;
Industry
Social politics
Agriculture
Public administration
International activity
Defense
Law enforcement activity
Health care
Financial support for the regions.
This division budget expenditures, characterizing the sectoral proportions of the distribution of budgetary funds, allows for the redistribution of state resources in order to structurally transform social production.
The main source cash receipts the budget is: national income, national wealth, domestic and foreign loans.
The expenditures of the federal budget of the Russian Federation are classified:
1) by its role in the reproduction process - on the costs associated with the financing of material production and the maintenance of the non-production sphere. This distinction allows a more detailed analysis of the role of the state and the importance of the budget in regulating the economic and social development of society.
2) on functional purpose - for the costs of financing the national economy, social and cultural measures for the defense of the country, the maintenance of the administrative apparatus, for law enforcement and security, for fundamental research and the promotion of scientific and technological progress, for the costs of servicing the state debt.
Each type of expense has a high quality and quantitative characteristics. High quality reflects the economic nature of the phenomenon and establishes the purpose of budget expenditures, and quantitative - their value.
Budget expenditures, depending on their economic content, are also subdivided into current expenditures and capital expenditures - capital expenditures.
The bulk of the funds are for running costs. These costs ensure the current functioning of local government bodies, budgetary institutions, rendering state support other budgetary and individual sectors of the economy in the form of grants, subsidies and subventions, as well as other budget expenditures not included in capital expenditures in accordance with budget classification... These include expenditures on the procurement of goods and services, labor of civil servants, payroll, payments on domestic loans and government external debt and etc.
Capital expenditures Are the costs that provide innovative and investment activity, in accordance with the approved investment program. They include
(Let's explain some of the costs)
1. To the costs of public administration and local government includes the costs of maintaining the relevant state and local government bodies - representative (legislative) and executive. These expenses, being the material and financial base of the activity government agencies allow them to exercise leadership in the economy.
2. Judicial expenses, law enforcement and state security cover the funds necessary to maintain the prosecutor's office, internal affairs and internal troops, the criminal procedure system, customs authorities, tax police, border guards and state security.
3. The costs of the national economy the main place is occupied by deductions in the industry Agriculture, housing and communal services, consumer services for the population and some other industries.
4. Significant budget funds are spent annually on financing of social and cultural events... These are the costs of education, health care and physical education, social security, social assistance, culture and art, and the media. They allow the state to develop the system of public education, finance culture, meet the minimum needs of the population in medical care, provide social protection for citizens, and raise the level of their social security. The largest sums go to finance education. Free education and health care remain a priority. Free general and competitive vocational education is guaranteed.
Considerable attention is paid to social protection of the poorest strata of the population. Measures are envisaged to increase the minimum level wages, an increase in unemployment benefits, compensation for food for preschool children, schoolchildren, students, to streamline the wages of employees of budgetary institutions.
It should be borne in mind that a large part of social spending goes through extrabudgetary social funds(payment of pensions).
Budget expenditures on social and cultural events have not only social, but also economic importance... As a financial basis for implementation social rights- on education, medical care, social protection, etc., these costs simultaneously affect social production, contributing to the improvement of the qualitative composition of labor resources, creating conditions for increasing labor productivity through the use of scientific achievements, accelerating scientific and technological progress.
5. Part of the budget is allocated for defense. Defense spending is caused by the need to preserve and develop the defense industry complex, maintain the combat readiness of the army, continue the development of the latest weapons, as well as increase the social protection of servicemen and their families, increase salaries for officers, rise in prices for military products and a number of other reasons.
6. Expenditures on basic research and the promotion of scientific and technological progress make up only a small percentage of total amount expenditures Federal budget
7. International expenses include the costs of non-trading operations (maintenance of Russian institutions and representative offices abroad, payment membership fees v international organizations and etc.). Financing costs in the field of international activities covers international cooperation, the implementation of international treaties, cultural, scientific and informational relations.
IMPORTANT!
http://info.minfin.ru/fbrash.php
there it is a long time to copy all the diagrams, but you need to look at the approximate percentage and numbers, he will definitely ask. 2011 especially. Look at what is spent most of all (there are 3 indicators always in the lead)
http://info.minfin.ru/fbdohod.php
income also look!
Depending on the duration, cycles in the economy are divided into short, medium and long (long).
Short cycles are called Kitchin cycles, after the English economist and statistician Joseph Kitchin. He explained small cycles by the frequency of fluctuations in gold reserves and determined their recurrence at intervals of three years and four months.
The founder of econometrics, Wesley Mitchell, saw the reason for small cycles in the money circulation and determined their duration at 40 months, that is, also three years and four months.
Small (short) cycles are associated with the disruption and resumption of equilibrium in the consumer market.
The reason for the short cycles is the changes taking place in the field of credit. Therefore, they manifest themselves as crises in the credit sector.
Average cycles also called the cycles of Clement Juglar (named after the French economist who studied the middle cycles in the second half of the 19th century). He believed that the reason for the average cycles also lies in the field of credit, and determined their frequency at 8-10 years. This periodicity coincides with the duration of average cycles, the reason for which scientists saw in the same periodicity of renewal of fixed capital.
The middle cycles include the so-called construction Simon Kuznets cycles(named after the American scientist, Nobel laureate). He believed that cyclical fluctuations are associated with periodic renovation of housing and some types of industrial facilities and determined their duration (frequency) in 15-20 years.
The existence of long waves (large cycles) is associated with changes in basic technologies, energy sources and infrastructure facilities. They are also called Kondratyev's cycles (in honor of the Russian scientist Nikolai Kondratyev). His research was based on statistical data on the dynamics of production of pig iron, lead, coal, as well as the average level of prices, wages and interest rates, external trade turnover and other indicators in England, France, Germany and the United States for the period from the 80s of the XVIII century. until the 20s of the XX century. Based economic analysis he identified two and a half long waves with a duration of 54-55 years with ascending and descending phases.
Downward phase of a large cycle- this is a period of changes in basic technologies and technological structures, lasting 20-25 years. During this phase, small and medium cycles occur, which creates the basis for the most significant changes in technical re-equipment.
The Rising Phase of the Big Cycle- this is a period of upsurge in the economic, scientific and technological development of society, lasting 25-30 years, during which cyclical fluctuations are also possible associated with the renewal of fixed capital, the massive dissemination of new technologies, the emergence and development of new sectors of the economy.
Let's take a closer look at the average cycles, which are also called industrial cycles.
Industrial (economic) the cycle is the most acute form of manifestation of the contradictions inherent in the market (capitalist) economy and at the same time a very tough, but effective way of resolving them.
The material basis of the industrial cycle, in accordance with Marxist theory, is the periodic renewal of fixed capital.
The frequency of the cycles, therefore, is determined by the time of renewal of the fixed capital. The faster this renewal is carried out, the more frequent crises occur. During the time described by Karl Marx, the frequency of renewal of fixed capital was 10-11 years. This was also the frequency of medium (industrial) cycles.
The classic business cycle diagram includes four phases (Figure 16.1).
Let's give brief description each phase of the business cycle.
Economic crisis features:
- - overproduction of goods in relation to effective demand for them;
- - significant reduction in production volumes;
- - falling prices;
- - shortage of free Money required for making payments;
- - stock market crash and bankruptcy of enterprises;
- - an increase in the unemployment rate;
- - decrease in the level of wages;
- - a drop in the level of profit;
- - mass destruction of consumer goods, equipment, etc .;
- - disorder of the credit system.
Depression traits:
- - "stagnation" of production;
- - low level prices;
- - "sluggish" trade;
- - low rate loan interest;
- - liquidation of commodity surpluses.
Revitalization Traits:
- - expansion of production until the resumption of the pre-crisis level;
- - rise in prices;
- - increase in the rate of return;
- - an increase in the level of employment;
- - trade revival;
- - strengthening of optimistic expectations.
Rise Traits:
- - exceeding the maximum production volume of the pre-crisis level;
- - rapid growth in employment;
- - growth of wages and other types of income;
- - credit expansion;
- - artificial stimulation aggregate demand caused by the expectations of middlemen for price increases and their desire to buy more goods at lower prices;
- - an increase in supply, which will eventually exceed demand and create conditions for the next crisis.
With the acceleration of scientific and technological progress and the strengthening of state (government) intervention in the economic life of society, the industrial cycle is being modified (Fig. 16.2).
Modern economic theory distinguishes two phases of the economic (industrial) cycle:
- - recession that includes crisis and depression;
- - rise including animation and boom.
Recession is a phase of the economic (business) cycle characterized by a relatively moderate, non-critical decline in production or slowdown economic growth... It is located between the top and bottom points.
Rise (expansion) of production- the phase between the bottom (trough) and boom (the highest point of the cycle).
As defined by the National Bureau economic research USA (NBER), a recession is a period of decline in the level of total output, income, employment, trade, lasting from six months to one year and characterized by significant declines in many sectors of the economy.
American scientists Arthur Berne and Wesley Mitchell, studying the cyclical fluctuations of the modern economy, came to the conclusion that the dynamics of the series of output and employment determines economic growth, called an upward trend, and fluctuations in business activity around the trend form industrial cycles.
Thus, the trend can be viewed as a result of the action of factors that determine long-term economic growth (the level of savings, increase in labor resources, technical shifts, etc.), and the cycle as a temporary deviation from this trend.
Business Cycle (Business Cycle, or Business Cycle)- these are regular fluctuations in the level of business activity (as a rule, represented by fluctuations in national income), at which, after an increase in business activity, it decreases, after which it again increases.
Modern business cycles are significantly different from cycles late XIX- the first half of the XX century.
- 1. They lack the phase of depression as a mandatory one, but if the fall is very deep and prolonged, then the phase of recession is called depression.
- 2. There is no clear line between revitalization and recovery. These phases are combined into one. Be called the expansion phase of production. Highlight the upper (boom) and lower (bottom) points of the business cycle.
- 3. The resultant of long-term economic growth is determined - a trend around which fluctuations form a cycle.
- 4. Changed and economic indicators in the phases of the cycle.