History of economic doctrines views of Mr. Kondratiev. Economic views of Kondratiev N.D.
Of interest are the views of such a prominent Russian economist as A.V. Chayanov (1888-1937). Even in the pre-revolutionary period, in connection with the rapid growth of peasant cooperatives, an organizational and production school arose (N.P. Makarov, A.V. Chayanov, A.N. Minin, A.A. Rybnikov, etc.). Alexander Vasilyevich Chayanov became the leader of this school. His main works: "Organization of the Peasant Economy" (1925), "A Short Course in Cooperation" (1925).
The main subject of Chayanov's research was the family-labor peasant economy, aimed at meeting the needs of family members. Chayanov believed that the study of the natural-consumer features of this economy is important when studying the agrarian system not only in Russia, but also in China, India and other countries with poor development. market relations. The concept of labor consumption balance proceeded from the fact that the peasant does not strive for the maximum net profit, but for growth total income. Chayanov saw the path to a radical increase in the efficiency of the agrarian sector in the massive spread of cooperation, its anti-capitalist and anti-bureaucratic content. He opposed the stateization of cooperatives, seeing the benefits of cooperation in relatively low prices for products and in extra income its members.
In the summer of 1917 The scientist put forward a plan for the reconstruction of the agrarian sector: the transfer of land to the ownership of the working peasantry, the introduction of labor ownership of land (without the right to buy and sell plots), the transfer of landlord farms and estates to the state, the introduction of a single agricultural tax for the partial withdrawal of differential rent. Chayanov proceeded from the dual criterion of agrarian reorganization: an increase in labor productivity and the democratization of the distribution of national income.
A major achievement of Chayanov is the theory of differential optima of agricultural enterprises. The optimum exists where "ceteris paribus, the cost of the products obtained will be the lowest." The optimum depends on natural-climatic, geographical conditions and biological processes. In order to systematize all his conclusions, Chayanov divided all the elements of the cost in agriculture into three groups:
) decreasing with the consolidation of farms (administrative costs, costs for the use of machines, buildings);
) increasing with the enlargement of farms (transport costs, losses from the deterioration of labor quality control);
) that do not depend on the size of farms (the cost of seeds, fertilizers, loading and unloading).
The optimum, as you might guess, came down to finding a point at which the sum of all costs per unit of output would be minimal.
During the years of the organization of state farms (1928-1930), Chayanov proposed to evaluate their activities in terms of the degree of implementation of the state plan in terms of taking into account the interests of the region and the level of profitability of the enterprise itself. However, the problem of individual labor motivation, which previously occupied one of the central places in the works of the scientist, in 1928-1930. has not been researched.
Agrarian problems, in particular the theory of cooperation, were also paid tribute to by such a well-known Russian economist as N.D. Kondratiev (1892-1938). Although Nikolai Dmitrievich was a universal researcher, he lived in an agrarian country and was first interested in agrarian problems. He was the author of such economic works as "The development of the economy of the Kineshma Zemstvo of the Kostroma province" -1915, "The market for bread and its regulation during the war and revolution" -1922. In his early work, he considered a fixed price model for bread, as well as a mixed pricing method based on a combination of a fixed price basis with forecasts of its possible changes. Also in his works, he highlights the issue of the limits of state intervention in the market. Of course, a big impact on economic activity provided by the Socialist-Revolutionary Party, whose views he shared. Representatives of this party (V.M. Chernov, P.P. Maslov, S.S. Zakov and others) insisted on the socialization of the land, i.e. withdrawing it from the private property of individuals and transferring it to public ownership and disposal of democratically organized communities on the basis of egalitarian use. As we can see, in these views there is some discrepancy with the views of some economists, including Tugan-Baranovsky, on the subject of the human factor. Even then, the leveling principle was a sign of backwardness in the worldview of certain scientists or parties. After all, each person is, first of all, a person, and not a small bolt in the huge mechanism of the state. Any person will understand that such a view of the problem of moral and spiritual approach to the human aspect is unacceptable. Right or wrong, but Kondratiev also stands for the transfer of all lands to the position of common property, for the labor use of the people. Like Chayanov, he believes that labor farms in themselves, by virtue of their subsistence economy, are aimed primarily not at an economic perspective, but at development in the name of the state. An efficient agrarian sector, he believed, is able to ensure the rise of the entire economy, to become a guarantee of the stability of the entire national economy. First-priority assistance to farms approaching the farm type, according to Kondratiev, was necessary. The main task of such farms was to ensure a rapid increase in the production of marketable bread.
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Agrarian problems, in particular the theory of cooperation, paid tribute to such a well-known Russian economist as Nikolai Dmitrievich Kondratiev(1892-1938). Kondratiev shared the views of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party, based on communal labor views, a view of the land as the common property of all working people. Representatives of this party (V.M. Chernov, P.P. Maslov, S.S. Zak and others) insisted on the socialization of the land, i.e. withdrawing it from the private property of individuals and transferring it to public ownership and disposal of democratically organized communities on the basis of egalitarian use. Kondratiev also stands for the transfer of all lands to the status of public property, for the labor use of the people. But Kondratiev, like Chayanov, believes that labor farms in themselves, by virtue of their subsistence economy, are not aimed at an economic perspective, at development in the name of the interests of the state. However, Kondratiev saw the overcoming of the economic limitations of these forms in the ways of cooperation. Cooperation, in his opinion, has two advantages: the lack of emphasis on profit and the ability to ensure significant labor productivity. And it is to him that the substantiation of the basic principles of cooperation belongs - voluntariness and a consistent change in the forms of cooperation from lower to higher on the basis of economic expediency.
However, it was not the theory of cooperation that brought N.D.Kondratiev world fame, but the theory of large conjuncture cycles developed by him, known as the “Kondratiev theory of long waves”. The presentation of this theory was contained in the article "The World Economy and Its Conjuncture During and After the War", written by him in 1922. Kondratiev's interest in the theory of conjuncture, in the problem of long-term fluctuations, was caused by the desire to find out the trends in the development of the national economy. This problem corresponded to his scientific interests, since it was Kondratiev who created and headed the Market Institute until 1928.
Kondratiev processed the time series of the most important economic indicators(commodity prices, interest on capital, wage"turnover of foreign trade and others) for four countries (England, Germany, USA, France) over a period of approximately 140 years. As a result of data processing, he revealed a trend showing the existence of large periodic cycles lasting from 48 to 55 years. These cycles included in The attention to the problems of cyclical development of the economy, to which both Tugan-Baranovsky and Kondratiev paid tribute, was not least associated with the theory of cyclical development, the foundations of which were laid by K. Marx. cycles in processes similar to those that, according to Marxist theory, generate periodic fluctuations in the capitalist economy every 7-11 years (the so-called Juglar cycles).Kondratiev believes that the duration of a long cycle is determined by the average life of industrial and infrastructure facilities (about 50 years) , which are one of the main elements of the capital goods of society. the renewal of "basic capital goods" does not occur smoothly, but in jolts, and scientific and technical inventions and innovations play a decisive role in this.
In dynamics economic cycles Kondratiev identified some regularities. Thus, the "upward" phase of a large cycle (the upswing phase) occurs, in his opinion, under the following conditions:
- - high intensity of savings,
- - relative abundance of supply and low cost of loan capital,
- - its accumulation at the disposal of powerful financial and business centers,
- - low level of commodity prices, which stimulates savings and long-term investment of capital.
If these conditions are met, then sooner or later a moment comes when a significant investment in large facilities that cause radical changes in the conditions of production becomes quite profitable. A period of relatively grandiose new construction begins, when the accumulated technical inventions find their wide application, when new productive forces are created. In other words, intensive accumulation of capital is not only a prerequisite for the economy to enter a phase of a long recovery, but also a condition for the development of this phase.
The impetus for the transition to the "downward" phase (phase of recession) is the lack of loan capital, leading to an increase in loan interest, and, ultimately, to curtailment of economic activity and falling prices. At the same time, the depressive state of economic life pushes for the search for new ways to reduce the cost of production, namely, technical inventions. However, these inventions will be used already in the next "upward" wave, when the abundance of free money capital and its cheapness will make radical changes in production profitable again. At the same time, Kondratiev emphasizes that free money capital and low interest are a necessary but not sufficient condition for the transition to the "upward" phase of the cycle. It is not the accumulation of money capital in itself that brings the economy out of depression, but its activation of the scientific and technological potential of society.
The theory of "long waves" by N.D. Kondratiev gave rise to an extensive literature on this issue, giving impetus to the development of various concepts of long-term economic fluctuations. Discussions are ongoing regarding the causes of large cycles, but few deny that "long waves" are associated with the processes of economic restructuring.
Lecture 8 Economic theories of N. D. Kondratiev and A. V. Chayanov 1. Large conjuncture cycles and the theory of foresight. 2. The concept of national economic planning in the interpretation of Kondratiev. 3. Kondratiev's views on agrarian issues. 4. The concept of family-labor farming. 5. The theory of peasant cooperation.
References: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Kondratiev N. D. The market for bread and its regulation during the war and revolution. - M. : Nauka, 1991. - 487 p. Kondratiev N. D. Selected works. - M. : Economics, 1993. - 396 p. Kondratiev N. D. Large cycles of conjuncture and the theory of foresight. - M .: CJSC "Publishing House" Economics ", 2002 www. inet-lib. com (electronic library) A short course of cooperation: Reprint reproduction of the 1925 edition / Chayanov A.V. - M .: Cooperative publishing house, 1989. - 74 p. Chayanov A. V. Selected works / Ed. count ser. : Adamov V. E. and others - M .: Finance and statistics, 1991. - 432 p. In search of one's own path: Russia between Europe and Asia: A Reader on the History of Russian Social Thought in the 19th and 20th Centuries. v. : For higher educational institutions / In 2 parts. Comp. Fedorovsky N. G. - M .: Nauka, 1994. - 248 p. Nikulin A. M. Agrarian transformations in the studies of Chayanova A. V. // Sociological research. - 2005. - No. 10. Muravyova L. A. Overcoming oblivion of time // Finance and credit. - 2003. No. 13
Nikolai Dmitrievich Kondratiev (1892-1938) N. D. Kondratiev was born in the village of Galuevsky, Kineshmsky district, Ivanovo. Voznesenskaya province in a large peasant family. He studied at a parochial school, in 1905 he entered the church teacher's gymnasium, from where he was expelled in 1906 for unreliability. In 1911 -1914. studied at Petrograd University, where he was engaged in socio-economic sciences after which he was left at the department political economy to prepare for a professorship.
Created and headed until 1928 the Market Institute. Arrested in 1930 and convicted on charges of creating a non-existent "working peasant party", which allegedly fought against collectivization in the USSR. 1930 -1932 - in the Butyrka prison. 1932 -1938 in the Suzdal political isolator. On September 17, 1938 he was shot.
The main works of N. D. Kondratiev on the agrarian issue: “The Agrarian Question” (1917) “The World Economy and its Conjuncture During and After the War” (1922) “The World Grain Market and Prospects for Our Grain Exports” (1923) .) "Agriculture in Russia in the 20th century" (1923) "The relative fall in grain prices" "The market for grain and its regulation during the war and revolution", etc.
V economic theory 1930s only cycles lasting 7–11 years were considered. Kondratiev N.D. proved that there are also cycles of economic dynamics lasting 48-55 years - large cycles.
He studied the statistical data of England, Germany, France and the USA for 140 years: iron and steel production, coal consumption, interest on capital, wages of textile and agricultural workers, sown areas of oats, cotton, deposits in savings banks, etc.
Most of the data taken reveals the presence of cyclical waves. The periods of fluctuations of individual data coincide very closely with each other (the divergence of turning points for individual curves exceeds 5 years only in isolated cases). At the same time, data on the consumption of wheat, coffee, sugar, and cotton do not confirm the presence of large cycles.
Four important empirical regularities: 1. Before and at the beginning of the upward wave of each large cycle, profound changes are observed in the conditions of the economic life of society: significant changes in technology, involvement of new countries in world economic relations, changes in gold mining and money circulation.
3. The periods of the downward wave of each large cycle are accompanied by a long and especially sharply manifested depression in agriculture. 4. During the period of the upward wave of large cycles, the average capitalist cycles are characterized by the shortness of depressions and the intensity of upswings; During the period of the down wave of large cycles, the opposite pattern is observed.
The beginning of the rise coincides with the moment when the accumulation and accumulation of capital reaches such a tension that it becomes possible to profitably invest capital in order to create the basic productive forces and radically re-equip technology.
The beginning increase in the pace of economic life, which is complicated by industrial-capitalist cycles of medium duration, causes an aggravation of social struggle, the struggle for the market and external conflicts.
In this process, the rate of accumulation of capital weakens and the process of dispersion of free capital intensifies. Strengthening the action of these factors causes a change in tempo economic development and its slowdown. The effect of these factors is stronger in industry, and the turning point usually coincides with the onset of a long agricultural depression.
The slowdown in the pace of economic life causes, on the one hand, an intensification of searches in the field of improving technology, and on the other hand, the restoration of the process of capital accumulation in the hands of industrial, financial and other groups, largely at the expense of agriculture. All this creates the prerequisites for a new upsurge of the great cycle, and it is repeated again, albeit at a new stage in the development of the productive forces. Thus, it is possible to assert the existence of large cycles of economic conjuncture rather than to speak of their absence.
2. For most of the decade of the 1920s. Kondratiev worked on the problems of national economic planning, drew up the first plans, set the task of creating a macroeconomic theory of planning and forecasting. The scientist saw the significance of the plan in ensuring a faster, with spontaneous development, growth rate of productive forces, as well as a balanced growth in production.
The scientific basis of foresight 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The present and the future grow out of the past, the patterns of development of society must be studied for foresight Forecast has scientific significance - for the sake of it, knowledge is carried out, and the confirmation of forecasts is the main criterion for the truth of scientific theories The problem of forecast has a practical meaning, because. . . whether a project of social reform is put forward, whether this or that measure is proposed economic policy whether this or that plan of regulation of the national economy is being built. . . Everywhere the question of active interference in the course of environmental events and the question of foreseeing the course of subsequent events is raised. The reliability of the forecast depends on the depth of scientific knowledge of reality. Forecasting is the lot of scientists and any administrative intervention is detrimental to the reliability of forecasts.
Cyclic - the genetic basis of foresight Kondratiev N.D. distinguishes three sections of the theory of economics: statics, dynamics and genetics Statics is a necessary, but the initial stage of knowledge. It reveals and describes the structure, internal and external relationships and proportions of the object under study at rest or in equilibrium without jumps in motion. Dynamics - allows you to identify changes economic elements, i.e., to think of economic life in the process of change. Socio-economic genetics is the highest level of knowledge, revealing the patterns of heredity, variability and selection in the development of society, helps to understand their mechanisms when changing cycles.
The scientific basis for long-term and strategic forecasting was Kondratiev’s teaching on cyclical dynamics “Problem of Foresight” (1926), “Plan and Forecast” (1927) N. D. Kondratiev reveals the criteria for the reliability and reliability of the forecast: regular character; 2. Prediction of events that reveal the regular repetition of cycles and crises; 3. Anticipation of general trends in socio-economic dynamics. For the last two types, the cyclic genetic approach is of decisive importance.
Forecast and plan Foresight is necessary for the state's purposeful influence on the course of socio-economic development on the basis of long-term (strategic) plans. “The plan is not only foresight, it is. . . and program of action; but a plan without any foresight is nothing.” The starting point of the plan is an analysis of objective economic reality and trends in its development and "the construction of a system of measures and means of state influence on the course of this spontaneous development in order to direct it along the most desirable channel."
The prospects of the plan are not only a directive, but also a foresight based on knowledge of the connections and regularities in the course of reality, which were noticed in the study of the past, and above all, dynamic regularities, since only dynamic regularities can indicate the path and forms of the transition of events from stages of the present to one or another stage of the future, only dynamic patterns, as it were, connect the present and the future. Science-based plans imply a resolute refusal to introduce arbitrary parameters into them. Let them become "poorer and more modest", but more real.
A long-term plan should consist of two main parts: 1. A reasonable and, if possible, quantitatively expressed idea of the probable and desirable prospects for the development of the economy. 2. A system of state measures consistent with these principles, which are aimed at realizing these prospects. He criticizes the State Planning Committee of the USSR for drawing up detailed balance sheets for the entire national economy for a five-year period. He warns against the hypnosis of numbers and the arithmetic of detailed calculations that replace deep analysis of possible conflicting trends in future development.
General rule planning constructions Only those phenomena and processes whose dynamics can be assessed by quantitative indicators are subject to planning, i.e., exact expression for a certain perspective; otherwise, one should confine oneself to indicating the main trends. Relativity of planning directives “Plans drawn up cannot be understood as strictly precise, so to speak, “official” directives. They should be understood as the main pointing directive, requiring the practice of maximum creative flexibility in terms of taking into account specific conditions work and get the best results.
3. The agrarian question in the work of N. D. Kondratiev An effective agricultural sector is able to ensure the rise of the entire economy, to become a guarantee of the stability of the entire national economy. He considered it necessary to provide priority assistance to farms approaching the farm type, capable of ensuring a rapid increase in the production of marketable bread. His program focused on supporting strong family labor farms that could become the basis of the country's economic recovery. The scientist singled out three acceptable forms of land use: - personal, - communal, - artel. Form selection must be done locally.
He sees the solution of the agrarian question in the socialization of the land. In the countryside there must be equal family and labor use of the land, and every worker must be provided with land free of charge. Thanks to this, the unemployed part of the working class will be able to go into agriculture and will cease to undermine the position of the rest of the workers by their competition. Socialization will strengthen agricultural production and strengthen industry. It will make the people better fed, healthier and therefore more productive.
At the same time, Kondratiev N. D. is a supporter of the farmer-capitalist path of development of agriculture, considering social differentiation peasantry by a natural and even positive process. In the most prosperous peasant (private) farms, higher labor productivity, marketability and the degree of capital accumulation are achieved. They intensively form financial resources, which are used by their owners to intensify production. From large farms it is possible, within certain limits, to draw resources both for material assistance to the poorest strata of the countryside and for the development of industry. As for the poor, it creates a reliable base for replenishing the ranks of agricultural and industrial workers, which is also necessary for the development of the national economy.
Kondratiev ND sees the basis of land orders in a combination of three forms of land tenure: 1. State 2. Cooperative 3. Individual peasant. Kondratiev N. D. proved the futility of both large capitalist and small labor peasant farms as such. He saw the overcoming of the economic limitations of these forms of farming in the ways of cooperation. It is cooperation that can and should combine the advantages of small-scale (lack of emphasis on surplus value as the main goal of production) and large-scale (ensuring significant labor productivity at lower unit labor costs and capital intensity, introducing the achievements of scientific and technical progress, etc.) methods of management.
Cooperatives should be formed on the basis of strict voluntariness, if necessary, observe the sequence in changing the types of cooperation, in which the production cooperative is the final, most developed form of joint management of the economy; its broad introduction into the economic life of the countryside must be preceded by co-operation among the peasants in the sphere of circulation.
"The market for bread and its regulation during the war and revolution" The creation of the army and the disruption of the market for bread - set the task of regulating the supply of the army and the population with bread. The focus of this monograph was on the supply and regulation of the grain market in the conditions of war and the revolutionary transformations of society (the impossibility of its natural functioning).
Tasks of the state to regulate the supply: -Procurement of bread; - Regulation of prices; -Regulation of transportation; -Regulation of distribution and consumption; - Creation of a network of food authorities.
The task of price regulation It was in the immediate interests of the state to delay the further rapid rise in prices. Price regulation during the war manifests itself in two main forms: 1. Influencing the market correlation of demand - supply of bread by throwing state or municipal stocks of bread on the market; 2. Establishment of specified prices instead of free prices. Indicated prices, by their economic nature, are divided into fixed prices and taxes.
Fixed prices - are set in the areas of grain procurement. Dachshunds are established in areas where bread is consumed. Considers the fixed price model for bread, in which the degree of administrative intervention is the highest; an indirect impact model, the essence of which was to guess the “free price”, and a mixed pricing method based on a combination of a fixed price basis with forecasts of its possible changes.
The ratio of industrial and agricultural prices "We want the policy of prices for agricultural products to be based on the principle that the price should ensure an expanded reproduction of agricultural goods" Price public policy in subsequent decades, it proceeded from opposite principles and prevented not only expanded, but also simple reproduction in agriculture, as well as modernization.
The task of regulating the transportation, distribution and consumption of products Regulation of transportation is explained by the "increased disorder of transport" Regulation of distribution and consumption: "the difficulty of harvesting and transporting products caused their shortage in consumption areas, and this lack required streamlining their distribution and normalization of consumption" . The creation of a network of food authorities, the fulfillment of all previous tasks required the state to create an appropriate food organization in Russia.
Methods of state influence on the course of supply: Direct - the state itself, as an economic entity, acquires products and supplies them to the consumer: unification and unification of the procurement apparatus, distribution of procurement by provinces. Indirect - a system of measures, the purpose of which is to influence the grain market, as a condition that determines the direct course of supply. These include: the establishment of fixed prices, export bans, the introduction of scheduled transportation. Measures of a complex nature for the regulation of procurement - forced apportionment, state monopoly loaves.
Between the first and second groups of methods, Kondratiev notes a close connection, which leads to the fact that in practice they are difficult to distinguish. Kondratiev N. D. for the first time approaches the concept of mixed forms of influence on the economy - from the state, trade and business structures, local authorities authorities (cities and zemstvos), as well as from individual peasant farms. The problem of the grain market is presented as a synthetic problem - many subjects are involved in its resolution, various, often conflicting methods of regulation are used.
He actively opposes the indiscriminate incorporation of all the "strong sections of the countryside" into the kulaks; an indefinitely broad approach to the kulaks gives rise to a struggle against the "strong, developing sections of the countryside. . . Which alone can be the basis of marketable products.
"Agricultural Five-Year Plan of Kondratiev" Analysis of past and probable future trends in the development of agriculture, indications of desirable directions for its development and measures, the implementation of which would help bring the likely direction closer to the desired one. Based on the general attitude of the party and the state to accelerate the development of productive forces and the creation of an industrial-agrarian type of economy, the most desirable direction for the development of agriculture was defined as one that “firstly, will probably completely and soon bring down the raw material base for the development of industry; secondly, it will accelerate the process of accumulation of funds within the country and increase the purchasing power of the population; thirdly, it will increase its tax-paying power. But all this is conceivable only with the expansion of agricultural production, with an increase in its value, with an acceleration of export opportunities.
4. A. V. Chayanov (1888 -1937) was born in Moscow, graduated from the Petrovsky (Timiryazev) Agricultural Academy, where he worked for a long time. In 1908 he published his first scientific work on agricultural cooperation in Italy. In 1918 - Doctor of Sciences, Professor. In 1919, A. Chayanov created the country's first research institute for agricultural economics. Until 1928 he was the director of this institute. Then he takes an active part in the organization of agricultural cooperation in the country, and also works in the highest economic bodies involved in agriculture. 1930 arrested in the case of the Labor Peasant Party and exiled to Kazakhstan. 1937 again repressed and shot.
“One of the deepest and most important phenomena of the era we are experiencing in the history of Russia is the powerful revival of the Russian village, full of youthful energy.” 90% of the masses of peasant farms are pure family farms, while in Western Europe and America they are negligible); 2) Cooperation in the agricultural sector. "Organization of the peasant economy" (1925); "A Short Course in Cooperation" (1925); "Basic ideas and forms of organization of agricultural cooperation" (1927). 3) Organization of agricultural production
Family-Labor Peasant Farming (STKh) 1. Aimed at meeting the needs of the family members themselves. 2. Natural economy. It is drawn into the process of the market economy through the sale of surpluses and the better satisfaction of one's own needs. 3. Advantages of the agricultural sector: attachment of the peasant to the land, accurate accounting of soil and climatic, weather conditions, detailed knowledge of the characteristics of agricultural labor, etc. 4. Organizational plan and labor consumption balance - the basis of the organization of the agricultural sector
Organizational plan (subjective display by the peasant of the system of goals and means economic activity) the choice of the direction of the economy, the combination of its various sectors, the linking of labor resources and the main volume of work, the separation of products consumed in one's own economy and products sent to the market, balance cash receipts and expenses.
The family composition determines the limits of the volume of economic activity of the family “The labor force of the labor economy is entirely determined by the availability of able-bodied family members. Therefore, the possible maximum limit of the volume of the economy depends on the size of the work that these labor forces can give with their greatest use and tension. To the same extent, the lowest volume of the economy is determined by the amount of material goods that are absolutely necessary for the very fact of the existence of the family.
Labor consumption balance The peasant, using his own labor and the labor of his family members, strives not for the maximum net profit, but for the growth of the total, gross income, the balance of production and natural factors, the correspondence of production and consumption, the even distribution of labor and income throughout the year. Consequently, market criteria for DHW are not always applicable. Land rent in the SHK loses its non-labor character, and takes the form of excess income received by the peasant family due to the advantages of location, increased land fertility, and other factors.
The concept of the organizational plan and labor-consumption balance allowed Chayanov A.V. to explain a number of paradoxes in the development of the peasant economy in Russia: - Flax and potato growing - labor-intensive crops gave a small net profit and were not common in entrepreneurial-type farms, while small-land peasants bred them very widely; - Low level distribution of high-performance threshing machines in the warehouses; - In the years of poor harvests, the SCS increased the supply of labor; in the years of improved market conditions, it reduced the working time fund.
Fundamentals of the structure and turnover of capital in a family farm: 1. With each given level of technology and the conditions of a given market situation, any farm that has the ability to regulate the area of its land use can increase the productivity of its farm to a known optimal level for this family. 2. Not all TSCH operate at optimal capital intensity. Many of them run farms with a low capital supply and receive reduced wages. 3. The processes of capital formation and capital recovery are linked to some balance with other processes family farm(the tension of labor, the satisfaction of personal needs, etc.) and in their strength depend on the development of the latter.
Demographic factors of STS differentiation: - children grow up to become semi-workers, and then workers - the “big family” breaks up into a number of small young families Thus, firstly, the dynamics of STS is undulating, subject to the process of its growth and decay; secondly, property differentiation is not of a social nature.
Criticism of the three-term scheme "kulak - middle peasant - poor peasant" He singled out six types of farms: 1. capitalist; 2. semi-labour; 3. prosperous family and labor farms; 4. poor family - labor; 5. semi-proletarian; 6. proletarian.
Cooperation is a massive way to increase the efficiency of the agrarian sector A cooperative is a union of farms, and the farms included in such a union are not destroyed by this, but still remain small labor farms. An agricultural cooperative is an addition to an independent agricultural cooperative, it serves it, and without such an economy it makes no sense. Operations on processing, storage, marketing of peasant products, purchase and maintenance of equipment, procurement of mineral fertilizers, seeds, breeding, selection work, credit business, i.e., all those operations where large-scale production has a preponderance over small.
Approach to cooperation from two sides: 1. Organizational form of the economy. The concept of organizational plan and differential optima for the size of enterprises. 2. Social movement- anti-capitalist and anti-bureaucratic orientation. Cooperation gives peasants knowledge about the work of agricultural equipment, etc., therefore, in addition to trading work, it conducts cultural and educational work in the villages. In cooperation, capital is a servant, not a master.
From the point of view of organization: Only those types of activity, the technical optimum of which exceeds the capabilities of an individual peasant economy, should move to cooperatives. The “splitting off” of operations usually occurs “from the market to the field”: first, the cooperative form extends to 1) operations linking the economy with the market - cooperatives for procurement, marketing, credit, 2) to the processes of primary processing of raw materials (butter, vegetable drying, potato grater associations) and 3) industrial biotechnological (societies for breeding pedigree cattle, machine, reclamation partnerships).
The theory of differential optima of agricultural enterprises The optimum takes place where, under "other things being equal, the cost of the products obtained will be the smallest." In the agrarian sector of the economy, the optimal size of farms depends very much on the natural, climatic, geographical conditions, the biological nature of the processes, and other features; therefore, it is especially necessary to take into account the regional factor.
Differences between a cooperative and private trading and industrial enterprises: Cooperative production and trade 1. The interests of farms that have united in a union and created a cooperative for themselves are in the first place. Private entrepreneur and trader 1. The interests of capital invested in production and service are in the first place.
2. The management and management of the affairs of the cooperative is in the hands of the labor farms included in the cooperative. 3. The interests of the peasant are determined not only by obtaining benefits for themselves, but also by the demands of spiritual life, 2. The management and management of affairs is carried out by representatives of capital who have spent a lot of money. 3. Private interests are conditioned only by obtaining greater benefits, profits for oneself.
He protested against the trend towards nationalization of cooperatives. The cooperative apparatus is recognized as being more perfect in servicing the countryside than state enterprises, because ". . . cooperatives, governed in their smallest bodies by elected representatives of the working people, under the control of the members of the cooperative who elected them, unbound by the administrative orders of the center, flexible in economic work, allowing the most rapid and free manifestation of profitable local initiative - is the best apparatus where organized local amateur activity is required, where in each individual case, one must flexibly adapt to local conditions and take into account the smallest features of each place and each month of work.
He defends the independence of cooperative organizations - "coordination of the interests of cooperation and the state - through a general agreement between state bodies and cooperative centers." Cooperatives support and develop the peasants' desire for forms of economic self-government (assemblies, elections of government and democratic control over its work, etc.).
The concept of differential optima until the mid-1920s. was used by Chayanov to justify "vertical cooperation" (for independent and relatively small peasant farms). From 1928-1930 A. V. Chayanov's attention is already focused on the organization of large and largest agricultural enterprises of state farms (a break with the previous concept of an individual family-labor farm as the basis of the agrarian sector). Under the new political realities, individual peasant farming cannot be preserved, therefore, it substantiates the state farm form as the most acceptable from the point of view of the introduction of mechanization and advanced methods of agricultural science.
Organization of the agrarian sector “Agriculture remained somehow aloof from the conquests of human culture and almost everywhere was carried on in the old fashioned way in thousands and millions of individual small farms, dispersed, not interconnected, and most of them working with very little perfect technology. . . Is it even possible to organize agriculture like industry on the new principles of modern technology and scientific organization? How to introduce these methods and ways into the depths of the countryside, how to organize the peasantry in such a way that the achievements of science and practice become accessible to them? This question is the most important question for agriculture!”
In 1917, he put forward a plan for the reconstruction of the agrarian sector (rather radical): - transfer of land to the ownership of the working peasantry and the introduction of labor ownership of land (without the right to buy and sell plots); - transfer to the state of landowners' farms and exemplary estates; - the introduction of a single agricultural tax for the partial withdrawal of differential rent. A negative attitude towards the Socialist-Revolutionary demand for equalizing the allotment of land to the peasants, believing that such a land use regime does not correspond to the flexible nature of the land use system and will require prohibitive costs with multiple boundary redistributions.
Two promising types of possible development of agriculture: 1. The American farming path of capitalism in agriculture with the introduction of all kinds of capitalist auxiliary enterprises into the thickness of farms 2. "Cooperative collectivization" and the transformation of cooperation into ". . . one of the components of the socialist economic system. A. V. Chayanov recommended the second path as the only possible one in the Soviet countryside to prevent “farming degeneration” and to gradually involve each of the peasant farms in the general mainstream of the planned economy.
Nikolai Dmitrievich Kondratiev (1892 - 1938) - Russian economist.
Born into a peasant family, he graduated from the law faculty of St. Petersburg University. In October 1917 he was Deputy Minister of Food in the Provisional Government. After October 1917, he worked at the Agricultural Academy, and then headed the Market Institute. In 1938 he was shot on a false charge.
agricultural question. N. D. Kondratiev saw the solution of the agrarian question to the socialization of the land. He comes to the conclusion that in the countryside there should be equal family and labor use of the land, and land should be provided to every worker free of charge.
The scientist singled out three acceptable forms of land use - personal, communal and artel, but believed that the choice of form should be made locally.
Cooperation. N. D. Kondratiev believed in the possibility of broad cooperation in agriculture. Positive sides cooperation lies in the lack of emphasis on profit and the possibility of increasing labor productivity. The scientist attributed voluntariness and a consistent transition to the highest forms of cooperation to the principles of cooperation.
Theory of long waves. An analysis of the most important economic indicators in four countries over a period of approximately 140 years led N. D. Kondratiev to the idea of the existence of large periodic cycles lasting approximately 50 years. Each cycle consisted of two phases - rise and fall. N. D. Kondratiev associated the period of duration and the cause of the occurrence of cycles with the revolutionary renewal of production facilities.
Alexander Vasilyevich Chayanov (1888 - 1939) - a prominent scientist, agricultural economist. Born in Moscow. Graduated from the Moscow Agricultural Institute. In 1919 he headed the Research Institute of Agricultural Economics. For his views he was repressed and shot in 1939.
agricultural question. A. V. Chayanov saw the solution of the agrarian question in the socialization of the land. The essence of socialization, from his point of view, is in the equal distribution of land: according to the labor norm, that is, the peasant must receive a plot of land that he could work with the labor of his family, or according to the consumer norm of the allotment, so that the income from the land satisfies all the needs of his family .
Theory of the peasant economy. The peasant economy is guided by the optimal combination of income and hardships of labor. A. V. Chayanov spoke about the exceptional survival of peasant farms in the face of a long and significant fall in prices, as well as rising costs, since they do not pursue profit.
Cooperation. The scientist saw the development of the village and the way out of the crisis in the creation of cooperation. The system of cooperation was presented to him as a set of unions of cooperation, which was in charge of individual branches of the peasant economy.
A. V. Chayanov recognized the advantage of large-scale farming over small farming. For Russia, he believed, a combination of family farms with large cooperatives is preferable: the latter take over the processing, transportation and sale of products, as well as lending to peasant farms.
Kondratiev entered the history of world economic science as the author of the theory of large conjuncture cycles (long waves, Kondratiev cycles), however, his contribution is much larger and extends to the study of economic dynamics, planning and forecasting, the economy in transition, agrarian issues and agricultural problems .
N.D. Kondratiev was born in 1892 in the Kostroma province into a poor peasant family. He studied at the parochial school, in 1911 he graduated from the Kostroma gymnasium and entered the law faculty of Petrograd University. Worked in societies. and state organizations involved in food supply. In the mid 20s. he was active in the field of planning and forecasting. He was one of the authors of the draft long-term plan for the development of agriculture and forestry, the so-called. "Five-Year Plans of Kondratiev". In February 1926, at the Institute of Economics, he made a report "Large cycles of the conjuncture", in which he expressed the thesis about the existence of long periods of change in the conjuncture.
In the scientific research of Kondratiev, the following areas can be distinguished: economic dynamics, including the theory of large cycles; planning, forecasting, regulation; agrarian issues, including issues related to the agricultural market and cooperation; historical and economic works, including political speeches.
His philosophical position is the belief in the existence of objective laws in the socio-economic field.
The general theory of dynamics was to consist of the following sections: general methodological part, trend analysis, theory of large cycles, theory of small cycles and crises, theory of socio-economic genetics, or development.
Kondratiev tried to demonstrate the cognitive possibilities of the equilibrium approach, primarily associated with the use of a statistical-probabilistic approach to the definition of basic concepts. From the very beginning, he proposed to consider the concept of equilibrium in relation to the economy of a certain type - the economy of free competition. He singled out two so-called. concentration. One (first-order equilibrium) included demand, supply, and prices with supply and demand volumes fixed from above, the second (second-order equilibrium) also included the level of production, costs, and incomes, with fixed volumes of factors.
Kondratiev introduced two innovations: he used a statistical-probabilistic approach to the definition of the concept of equilibrium and recognized the importance of expectations in the process of achieving equilibrium. He introduced the concept of neutral ("indifferent") static equilibrium: in the event of a change in external conditions, the system will come to a new state of equilibrium, in which it will remain until a new disturbance. Stability is the ability of the market to find equilibrium.
The process of finding an equilibrium, in contrast to the Walrasian model: 1) not necessarily perfect knowledge of economic entities; 2) equilibrium was represented as an average (mode) of values that characterize transactions made in the market; 3) the type of probability distribution of the values of the corresponding variables is determined by a large number of participants, their insignificant economic power and that they act in their own interests.
Cycles in the dynamics of the world economy:
Patterns:
1. There has been a revival in technical inventions in the two decades leading up to the start of the upward wave, an expansion in world connections and changes in gold mining, and money circulation;
2. the upward phases of large cycles are marked by significant social upheavals in the life of society;
3. the downward phase is associated with a long depression in agriculture;
4. Large cycles have an impact on medium cycles: in the downward phase, the latter are characterized by a longer duration and depth of the fall, shortness and weakness of the rise, on the contrary, in the upward phase of the large cycle, the rises of the average cycles are more significant and prolonged, and the declines are short and shallow.
All this led Kondratiev to the conviction of the high probability of the existence of conjuncture cycles with a periodicity of 50-60 years.
The upward wave is associated with the renewal and expansion of the stock of capital goods. The excess of demand for capital over its supply determines the change in the direction of the conjuncture curve. Depression stimulates the search for cheaper production processes, pushes for technical inventions.
Questions about the scale and methods of regulating the economy, the strategy of the state's economic policy remained at the center of Kondratiev's attention throughout the entire period of his active political and economic activity. He came up with the idea of strengthening the regulatory function of the state, proposed to expand the function of local governments, primarily food committees that control private capital and support cooperation.
The starting point for building a plan is a forecast, foresight, and an analysis of objective development trends. The goal of planning Kondratiev considered the development of realistic and reasonable plans based on an analysis of objective trends, i.e. plans "on which one could rely in the management of the national economy" and which are an expression of the desired results within the framework of the possible.
Kondratiev proceeded from the fact that the implementation of industrialization presupposes a high rate of accumulation. The source of accumulation in the current conditions is Agriculture, and fundamentally private capitalist.
Among the general economic tasks, Kondratiev named the balance of effective demand and the production of consumer goods.
13. Discussions about national economic planning in the 1920s.
1) Thesis about the need to combine long-term and current planning (G.M. Krzhizhanovsky). Development of a holistic program, including a five-year and master plans (10-15 years). Differentiation of goals for planning for different periods.
2) In the first half of the 1920s, there were 2 approaches to understanding the role of planning under the NEP:
Kondratiev: the plan is the most accurate forecast of the future movement of the national economy. Plans are difficult to build because devastation, long-term planning can turn into fantasy
Bazarov: to give an analysis of the target state that society should come to, indicate the problems, without reference to time frames. A combination of teleological (primarily for industry) and genetic (for agriculture) approaches.
A number of Gosplan economists branded the genetic approach and proclaimed only teleology as a truly socialist approach.
3) Studying the conjuncture and patterns of growth
Bazarov: growth is a fading curve (decrease in growth rates as devastation is overcome)
Groman: sustainable ratios of recovery rates and trends in cost proportions.
4) Balance method:
Gosplan: emphasis on formal balance, the implementation of which will lead to the interest of the working people in the fulfillment of the tasks set, and will cause the emergence of the "creative will of the revolutionary proletariat"
Kondratiev, Makarov, Weinstein: a guide to the most favorable economic conditions for the accumulation and use of capital, the introduction of levers that encourage enterprises to use resources efficiently.
5) Criteria for social and economic progress:
Early projects of the State Planning Commission: the maximum growth of productive forces, socialization and welfare of the people
Weinstein: the growth of these parameters may be in conflict with each other, it is necessary to determine their subordination
Most Opponents of Gosplan: Primacy of Dynamic Development of Productive Forces
Gosplan: the primary role is socialization
Further Khudokormov writes that at the turn of the 20-30s there is a radical change in the economic and political principles of the functioning of society and the establishment of the administrative-command system, then everything is about the 30s
“this position is the alpha and omega of German neoliberalism, separating its teaching from the liberal interpretation of the state as a “night watchman”
“It may be objected, of course, that industrial system It's not the whole economy. Outside the world of General Motors, Standard Oil, Ford Motor, General Electric, United States Steel, Chrysler, Texaco, Gulf, Western Electric, and DuPont ”, there is the world of the independent shopkeeper, farmer, shoe repairer, bookie, drug dealer, pie dealer, owner of a laundromat for washing dog props and car drapes. Here prices are not controlled. Here the supreme power belongs to the consumer. Here monetary motives dominate in their purest form. The technique here is simple, and there are no Scientific research or design work to make it different. There are no government orders here; independence from the state is a real fact here. None of these entrepreneurs are scouring the MIT grounds looking for talent. I acknowledge the existence of this world. And this part of the economy is not without significance. But it is not the subject of this book. Her subject is the world of large corporations."
Identification manifests itself to a greater extent, since the technostructure does not allow secrecy, on which abuses and malfeasance grow (written in Pokidchenko, IMHO nonsense)
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