What factors influence the development of the state. Features of the historical path of development of Russia
Ministry of Education and Science Russian Federation
Federal State Autonomous educational institution higher professional education "Ural Federal University named after the first President of Russia B. N. Yeltsin"
Institute of radio electronics and information technologies - RTF
Department of high-frequency radio communications and television
In the discipline "History"
"The role of geopolitical, natural-climatic and ethno-confessional factors in the development and fate of Russia"
Teacher: Rogova E.M
Student: Anchutin M.P.
Group: RI-120501
Ekaterinburg
1. Introduction (1)
1.1 Relevance
1.2 Purpose of the study
1.3 Research objectives
2 Factors influencing the fate and development of Russia (4-16)
2.1 Geopolitical factor.
2.2 Natural and climatic factor.
2.3 Ethno - confessional factor.
3 Conclusion (17)
4 References (18)
Introduction:
The relevance of this topic is quite high, since the development of Russia very much depended on the data in the problem of factors.
Purpose of the research: to investigate the factors stated in the topic.
Research objectives: to identify the factors that most strongly contributed to the development of Russia, as well as to analyze each separately to form a holistic picture of the development of Russia.
Chapter 1: Geopolitical factor. The essence and its role in the development of Russia.
First of all, I would like to say what geopolitics and geopolitical factors are in general. Geopolitics is the science of control over territory, of the patterns of distribution and redistribution of spheres of influence of various states and interstate associations. Geopolitical factors are the geographic location of the country, the availability of natural resources, climate, etc.
Next, I would like to talk about the geopolitical factor regarding Russia. Most often, the following geopolitical conditions are noted: a large, sparsely populated territory, a border that does not have natural protection, isolation from the seas, an abundance of rivers.
The most strongly geopolitical factor influenced the nature of agriculture. The soil and climate of Russia has long been unfavorable for agriculture, but Russia has always been considered a rich country. The wealth of Russia can be explained by the presence of huge reserves of timber, furs and other natural resources. And this circumstance had a very negative impact on the further fate of Russia.
Since there was a very large territory in Russia, people used the extensive way of farming, i.e. introduction of new territories to replace old ones. In my opinion, this is wrong, since the extensive way of doing business is not efficient and wastes the country's natural resources. To prove this statement, one can cite Western Europe as an example, here everything is regulated because limited space. To survive, in order to make a profit, a person needs to conduct an intensive farming in order to get everything he needs from a small piece of land. And, thanks to the intensive path of the economy, Europe is now very developed.
According to many historians, until the 18th century, Russia could not be called a state, since it had no specific boundaries. In the east, Russia delineated borders only in 1861 according to the Beijing Peace. If new land was required for farming, one could simply move eastward, farther and farther. Throughout the 20th century, Russia moved eastward. Various reforms were carried out - resettlement, reforms of Witte, Stolypin, five-year construction projects and so on.
Until the second half of the 20th century, Russia lived comfortably at the expense of an extensive type of economy. However, this could not last for a very long time, and by the end of the 50s of the 20th century, the reserves of the extensive path ended. For the further development of the country, a way out was necessary, and at the end of the 50s Khrushchev's reform on the transition to an intensive path was maturing. In 1965, this reform began to be implemented: the country began to transfer to intensification, the development of technology. However, in 1966, the Tyumen oil was discovered - and the country got finances, and, accordingly, there were extensive resources. The reform on the intensive path of the economy was curtailed. In the 70s of the 20th century, oil prices fell, and Russia pumped oil for almost free. This greatly depleted the country's economy, so perestroika began in the mid-1980s.
Also, the geopolitical factor influenced the military fate of Russia.
Russia did not even chalk natural barriers (like Japan - the sea, or India - the mountains). Russia, a country rich in resources, was open to conquerors. Therefore, there were many who wanted to seize Russia.
The famous Russian historian calculated that the Russian lands, starting from the 9th year, were attacked every 4 years. Then for 240 years the Russians were under the yoke of the Tatar-Mongols. And then, from 1480 to 1880, Russia fought two-thirds of the time, and sometimes wars were constant.
The destruction of the productive forces was constantly occurring, which contributed to a slowdown in development, which is why Russia became a warlike country. Another reason for Russia's aggressiveness is its extensive development. It was necessary to constantly expand the sources of raw materials, new lands were needed, new workers were required. Because of this, Russia pursued an aggressive policy. But the aggressiveness was not national. The Russians did not kill all the people living in the occupied territory, as the Germans did. The occupied lands only poured into the general fund.
Further, the geopolitical factor affected the statehood, since Russia had a military fate, it was necessary to have a strong army. And it is possible only with a strong state. However, a large army is a big waste. Since there was an extensive policy in Russia, there are service classes - the nobility and the Cossacks, who receive land for their service, and not a salary. The land itself did not make sense, so the land was supplied together with labor. What was unique for Russia was serfdom.
Also, the geopolitical factor was reflected in the culture. The internationality of Russians is reflected in cultural traditions. When relatives gather at the festive table, there are dumplings, pilaf, cabbage rolls on the table. Songs are sung in Russian families - everyone. In other words, traditions are international. In addition, Russians are generally not withdrawn in the sense of psychology. Because among Russians, sympathy for someone else's grief has no national connotation. Another feature characteristic of Russians is mobility. Russians easily change their place of residence. The history of no country knows of such massive migrations (to the east). In the 20th century alone, over 10 million people migrated to the east.
However, in addition to unfavorable factors, there were also favorable factors for the development of Russia.
Firstly, this is the specificity of the river network of the East European Plain. Since the largest rivers flow east and southeast, the Russian state area spread in this direction. Rivers contributed to state and national unity, since special river systems determined special systems of regions and principalities. Thus, we can conclude that the river network united the country both economically and politically.
Secondly, it is the fact that most of the "Great Silk Road" from China to Europe passed through the territory of Russia. Many countries were interested in maintaining political stability on the territory of Russia, so that trade goes on as usual and there are no unnecessary problems. In other words, the trading countries were interested in the existence of the Eurasian Empire: first, this empire was the state of Genghis Khan, and then Russia.
Chapter 2. Natural and climatic factor.
The natural and climatic factor in the development of Russia played a rather significant role, since the development of the country directly depends on agriculture, which in turn is closely related to climate and nature.
According to many historians, in the central part of Russia, which was the basis of the Russian state, the cycle of agricultural work was very short, it was equal to 125-130 days, which had a very significant impact on the development of Russia. The central part of Russia is located on the East European Plain, where there is a sharply continental, harsh climate. Unfavorable soil - 3% of chernozem, and the rest is clay and other infertile soils. Accordingly, we can conclude that the soil quality in Russia is very poor. However, the quality of the soil is not the main thing. The quantity and quality of the crop depends more on the quality of processing than on the quality of the soil. Due to the very short cycle of agricultural work, the Russian person had little time to cultivate the soil, so the quality of cultivation was low.
In the feudal era, the agricultural work cycle was about 140 days a year. Therefore, the Russian people needed to grow only the most necessary things. Thanks to this, cereals are becoming the main product of agriculture. Gardening was not practiced. We planted only those plants that grow without proper control: turnips, rutabagas, peas. There have always been gardens (dachas) around the cities, since in the summer the townspeople themselves took care of their food, i.e. were gardeners. This influenced the nature of the craft in Russia: in the summer - the gardener, in the winter - the artisan.
For four centuries, the Russian peasant was in a difficult situation: infertile soils required high-quality cultivation, but there was not enough time to cultivate the soil, as well as to procure feed for livestock. The peasant had only primitive tools at his disposal, so he could only cultivate the soil with minimal success. Due to this, the life of the peasant most often depended on soil fertility and changes in the weather. With such a budget of working time, the peasant could not always return even seeds to the harvest. Accordingly, the peasant had to work without sleep or rest, all day, using all the family's reserves. This was not the case in Europe, since the length of the working season was much longer. Of course, this provided a more favorable pace of work. This is precisely the fundamental difference between Russia and Europe, which lasted for centuries.
Difficult working conditions in Russia led to the greater stability of community institutions, which were the guarantor of the survival of most of the population. Land redistribution and equalization, as well as various peasant "help" survived in Russia until the 20th century.
Since in Russia many people were peasants in the summer, and the rest of the time as artisans, craft and trade acquired a unique character and quality. The shops appeared only at the end of the 18th century. Until that time, merchants walked, changed and delivered goods. It follows from this that each handicraft product was made for an abstract consumer. In Europe, the opposite was true: if you make a bad or low-quality product, the reputation of the workshop or brand under which the artisan works will deteriorate, and in the future there will be fewer buyers.
It should also be said about the influence of the natural and climatic factor on the unprofitableness of animal husbandry. At the beginning of spring, the quality of the land is very low and there is nothing to sow on, therefore, there is no food for livestock. Therefore, the peasant himself harnesses and plows the land.
Agriculture provided a very low surplus product, in other words, it was very low living wage... This gave rise to a peculiarity of the state structure. The country lived off taxes. If there is no surplus product, then it is difficult to take taxes from the population; accordingly, the state must be strong, therefore a despotic state existed in Russia.
The social structure changes over time. Due to the lack of a surplus product, society cannot support the intelligentsia, which provides the country with health care, art, and science. However, the people need health care, art and science. Since there is no intelligentsia in the country, these functions are performed by religion.
Therefore, in Russia, before the growth of the surplus product, there was no intelligentsia, there was no secular literature, music. Russian culture had a religious character.
The natural and climatic factor influenced the social structure. In the leading countries of Europe, the community disappeared, and an individual farm came. However, in Russia the communal structure survived until the 20th century. Even Stolypin's famous reforms did not change anything. In other words, there was a communal organization in Russia. Many reformers have tried to create farms, but these attempts have failed.
Also, the natural and climatic factor influenced the psychology of society. Community psychology is taking shape in Russia. Hence the consequence is traced - the equation of people. This can be explained by an example: if one of the people in a community gets rich, then the whole community breaks down. Accordingly, the equalization of people is the path to self-preservation of communities.
Since Russian people were very dependent on nature and weather, people believed in a miracle. Which greatly affected the folklore. All Russian characters in fairy tales received the joys of life only by a miracle.
The natural and climatic factor greatly influenced the peculiarities of the national character of the Russians. A Russian person can do something for a long time and stubbornly to an extreme exertion of strength, devote all his physical and spiritual strength to the cause for a relatively long period of time. However, the constant lack of time, the lack of correlation between the quality of work and productivity, developed in the Russian person a clear lack of thoroughness, accuracy in work, etc.
Chapter 3. Ethno-confessional factor.
First of all, it should be said about the ethnic factor in the history of Russia.
Russia is one of the most multinational countries. Multinationality has long been a feature of Russia, so the ethnic factor has played an important role in the development of Russia.
Below are the main ethnic groups of Russians.
Northern zone. This group of Russians has a peculiarity: there are fewer cultural groups and local dialects. This feature can be explained by the fact that the development of the Russian north had a spontaneous character. The northern zone is characterized by the presence of a specific dialect, the so-called North Russian dialect, as well as various cultural features, such as rural settlements and monumental dwellings. The largest ethnographic group of the North Russian population is the Pomors.
South and central zones. The main features of the development of these zones were due to the nature of the settlement of the forest-steppe and steppe zone of Russia. In the 13-15th centuries, the forest-steppe and steppe zones were devastated due to the Tatar-Mongol invasions. However, they were later re-settled by immigrants from different places, as the Russian state pushed its borders south. Thanks to this, many of the features of this zone were formed.
Siberia and Far East... The main groups of people living here were masons and "Poles". Bricklayers are the descendants of Kerzhaks from the Nizhny Novgorod province. “Poles” are descendants of Russian Old Believers from Kaluga, Tula, Ryazan and Oryol provinces.
The ethnic composition of Russia has changed over time. For example, in the 18th century, there were major changes in the ethnic composition of the country. This was facilitated by the following factors: expansion of the country's borders, inclusion in the boundaries of Lithuania, Belarus, the Baltic States, Ukraine, Crimea. However, at the turn of the 1720s, the number and proportion of peoples living there did not change, since there were internal migrations, as well as natural growth.
The table below clearly demonstrates the changes in the number and proportion of the peoples of the empire in the 18th century.
The main ethnic group in Russia were Russians. However, their share during the 18th century decreased by 30%. This fact is due to the fact that at that time there was a rather low natural increase in the central regions of Russia. The share of Russians in the 18th century decreases in the main regions of indigenous habitation, since other people very actively emigrated to these regions, or Russians were evicted from the inhabited lands (Northern Urals).
However, in many other regions of the country, the proportion of Russians increased quite significantly, for example, in the Lower Volga region.
A special stage in the life of Russia can be considered the time when the country was under the yoke of the Tatar-Mongols. IN this period the specific time of the entire Russian, as well as their number as a whole, decreased markedly, which directly affected the further development of the country.
Thus, we can conclude that for centuries Russia was a multinational country. The presence of a high number of ethnic groups directly influenced the development of Russia.
Confessional factor.
From the fact that there were many nations in Russia, the obvious conclusion follows - an abundance of religions. After all, different nations have adopted different religions. According to historians, in the 18th century Russia was fully formed in terms of nations, therefore, in order to show the picture of the spread of various religions in Russia, the following table can be presented.
Since religion is the main tool for managing people, the difference in the religious composition of the country created great problems for the authorities.
Religion had a strong influence on the development of the country. First of all, it is culture. Since antiquity, there have been many works of art related to religion in Russia: temples, churches, icons, etc.
However, according to the outstanding historian A. Timoshenko, the main role of religion in the development and history of the country is negative. For centuries, the bulk of the people have been ruled by religion. Many bloody wars were covered by religion.
It should also be said that a large number of religions in the country often gave rise to conflicts within the country, which negatively affected the further development of the country.
Conclusion.
Russia is a great state that has existed for a whole millennium. All of the above factors brought both positive and negative interference into the fate of Russia. The positive ones, of course, helped the development of Russia and made the country stronger. The negative ones, of course, had a negative effect on development, but all the problems only strengthened the character of the Russian person and made him stronger. Thus, we can conclude that Russia is a great state, and the Russian people, who have gone through so many troubles and problems, are one of the most persistent and enduring.
Bibliography.
1) http://www.atheism.ru/library/tim_1.phtml
2) History of Russia. 1900-1945 Grade 11. Ed. Danilova A.A., Filippova A.V.
3) History in diagrams and tables. Severinov K.M.
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Federal Agency for Education
State educational institution of higher professional education
Siberian State Aerospace University named after academician Mikhail Fedorovich Reshetnev
Faculty of Humanities
Department of Philosophy and Social Sciences
in political science
on the topic: Russian statehood: features, modern problems and prospects
Completed:
student of group BEF 11-01
Paranina A.M.
Checked by the teacher:
Sidorov I.G.
Alexishen A.S.
Krasnoyarsk 2012
Introduction
4. Russian statehood in modern Russia
Conclusion
Introduction
Russian statehood has its own characteristics, originality. Its study is one of the central parts of the course in the theory of state and law. A.B. Vengerov noted: "The course in the theory of state and law would be incomplete if it did not consider some of the most important theoretical issues of Russian statehood." Theory of State and Law. Part 1. Theory of the state / Under total. ed. Doctor of Law, prof. A.B. Vengerova. M., 1995 This is the key direction of domestic legal science, which allows you to check the applicability of the fundamental theoretical constructions, categories to Russian society and the state, to trace the change in Russian statehood under the influence of certain conditions and factors.
The policy of the Russian leadership in recent years, the strengthening of the state and its rather rigid dominance in the political field have intensified the debate about the "vertical of power." Some saw its strengthening as a means necessary to ensure the unity, strength and effectiveness of the state, others as a forced and temporary measure caused by the terrorist threat, and others as a manifestation of a course towards curtailing democracy in Russia, undermining fragile democratic institutions. Without claiming to be the ultimate truth, one thing can be firmly stated: it is impossible to understand this issue without referring to national history. statehood territorial orthodoxy
The history of the Russian state has developed a number of features that cannot be ignored when building a new political course. Modern politicians, trying to assimilate the Western practice of state management and leave the Soviet system of government, do not take into account the differences in the formation of Russian statehood.
When determining the characteristics of Russian statehood, it is advisable to consider at least three substantive categories: state, society, citizen. These categories are related, but also independent. Is everything good for the state good for society? Is everything that is good for society good for a citizen? And in the name of what (who) do both society and the state exist (should exist)? The history of the people and their fate depend on the content characteristics of these categories, their interdependence, role and place in the life of the people.
1. Statehood: concept and formation
The state is the organization of political power in society.
Statehood is an integral system of ideas and views used in the organization and activities of the state itself.
The concept of "statehood" is comparatively new category for domestic legal science. First of all, the question arises: the state and statehood are two different concepts or are they synonyms.
It should be noted that there is no clear, generally accepted concept of "statehood" in legal science. Most often, both categories are identified.
One of the first attempts to formulate the concept of "statehood" in relation to Russia was undertaken by A.B. Vengerov. He distinguished between the concepts of "Russian statehood" and "Russian state", believing that Russian statehood should be approached not only from political, economic, social positions, but also from cultural, ie. it is necessary to see great cultural value in the Russian statehood.
Statehood was interpreted by him not only as a set of political, economic, social and cultural processes inherent in a given state, but also as a historical process covering a significant period of time during which the life of society is carried out.
It is obvious that the concept of "statehood" is broader and deeper than the concept of "state", but it certainly includes the state as its component, but at the same time it is not limited to it.
· Statehood is a complex complex of elements, structures, institutions of public authority, conditioned by the originality of the socio-economic, political, spiritual and moral conditions of life of a particular people or the unification of peoples at a certain stage of the development of society.
· Statehood is a property, quality, state of society at a specific historical stage. This is the system of social relations that affects not only state power, but also other social institutions.
In a state-forming society, a certain idea of the role, place and purpose of the state is historically formed. Hence, we can say that in a particular state-forming society, there may be different opinions about the necessity and value of the state and state structures... All this depends on the activities of the state, its institutions, as well as on what values the state relies on in the process of organizing the exercise of its functions. Therefore, historically, opinions were expressed regarding the uselessness of the state, the harmfulness of its activities, but in many countries a completely decent attitude towards the activities of the state has developed and is taking shape, and therefore in these countries they are thinking about improving state structures. Mainly cultured people live within the framework of statehood. A cultured person is inconceivable without a state. Therefore, cultured, civilized people should always think about improving the state and its institutions, about bringing the state's activities closer to their interests.
In the process of statehood formation in modern conditions it is customary to rely on universal human values, to approach the characterization of the state as an objectively necessary, cultural and value phenomenon. And, indeed, there are universal, so-called, eternal values, which should be the basis of statehood. These include, for example: "the source of sovereign power in society is the state-forming people"; “The supreme function of the state is to protect the life, security and property of its citizens”; “What is not protected by law is permitted”; "The state must ensure the free expression of thoughts and opinions"; "everyone is considered innocent until his guilt is established by an independent court"; "everyone has the right to demand a substantive response to his complaint", etc. This should also include the provision on that “a society where there is no guarantee of rights and the separation of power has not been carried out has no Constitution.” Based on these values, the state can always bring its activities closer to the interests of the state-forming people, increase society's interest in statehood.
Statehood today should be viewed as a conscious process of the implementation by the state, as an organization of the political power of a certain society, of its functions. Statehood is, as it were, ideas and views on the state implemented in practical affairs. Statehood generally consists of the practical activities of state structures, state institutions.
In connection with the above, I would like to note that although the state is the organization of the political power of a certain society, in real life it consists of various relatively autonomous structural units that perform certain tasks and functions. These are relatively independent structural units, which together make up the integral concept of "state", it is customary to call the institutions of the state.
The institutions of the state, which are actually functioning state structures, must be distinguished from the institutions of law, which are understood as a system of separate legal norms specializing in the regulation of a certain kind or type of social relations (for example, the institution of sale and purchase, contracting, inheritance, etc.) ...
· The concept of "statehood" includes the following elements:
1) the central link is the state, which determines the nature of all political relations in society;
2) the economic system of society, where the leading place belongs to property relations;
3) the social organization of society, including national, religious, and other interpersonal relationships;
4) the spiritual and moral (cultural) organization of society;
5) the legal system;
6) Information system because information is the main production resource of society;
7) a person as a subject of social development, the bearer of the most important types of social relations and the main goal of the functioning of statehood.
The named components constitute a kind of subsystems that interact with each other and enable society to function as a whole.
2. Factors influencing the development of the Russian statehood
The following factors influence the development of statehood in Russia:
a) the peasant question, i.e. the question of how best to connect the peasant to the land and consolidate the most beneficial way of managing the peasant and society;
b) the national question, which has always been important for the development of Russian statehood, since the population of Russia is multinational;
c) geopolitical issue, i.e. realization of Russia's territorial interests and the influence of the country's geographic location on government organization society. The geopolitical position of Russia affects the ethnocultural strata of the population, their way of life, traditions, consciousness, etc. And this, in turn, directly affects the organization of the state life of the country. The conquests that Russia led in the past, annexing new territories to itself, also influenced the organization of political power: the state always had to be ready to protect the peoples of the outskirts from possible revenge.
Almost all peoples have geopolitical interests, including in the modern period;
d) production and consumption of alcohol
Prohibition under V.I. Lenin; vodka monopoly under I.V. Stalin, introduced in 1924; attempts by N.S. Khrushchev, to limit the production and consumption of alcohol and, conversely, increase its sales threefold under L.I. Brezhnev; attempts to solve the problem by cutting down vineyards under M.S. Gorbachev; the introduction of the state monopoly on the production and sale of alcohol again - all these were ways of solving the alcohol problem in Russia.
The problem of the influence of this factor on the development of statehood is controversial, although it has general social significance;
e) modernization, i.e. change in the quality of life. At present, modernization is understood as bringing up Russian society in certain areas to the level of world standards, including the protection of human rights.
Scientists studying the problems of Russian statehood unanimously note its specificity in comparison with Western states, emphasize its special state-legal spirit. For example, in the philosophical and sociological literature, four main features inherent in Russian statehood are named:
1) Orthodoxy as a form of collective consciousness;
2) autocracy, i.e. a strong state and centralization of state power;
3) community. In Russia, longer than in other countries, the community was preserved as a convenient form of life for the peasants. And this everyday aspect of the life of the Russian peasantry, which constituted the bulk of the country's population, left an imprint on the state organization;
4) colonization, i.e. transfer of traditional forms of organization to new territories.
All scientists, emphasizing the specificity of Russia, name the special mentality of the peoples of Russia, manifested in the originality of the economic structure, political and legal life, spirituality and psychological characteristics of the perception of the world.
3. Features of Russian statehood
The question of Russian statehood is unusually complex, since the very history of the formation of Russia is unusually complex, it combines an amazing variety of ethnic groups, customs, cultures and religions. At the same time, it should be noted that the overwhelming majority of works devoted to the analysis of state problems were carried out within the framework of the so-called Eurocentric paradigm, in which any state is related to the Western one as a reference model.
The main drawback of such works is that they all actually neglect the issue of the uniqueness of the Western state, associated with its genesis, real power and general socio-cultural dominance. Quite often, numerous publications reproduce the traditional point of view of Western researchers on the Russian state as undeveloped, lagging behind in its development and despotic. This traditional Western characteristic of the Russian state does not allow us to see the sources of its internal development, the factors of its correspondence to the mood of the people, and also to understand the origins of the victories and achievements of our country.
It should be borne in mind that neither Western researchers nor Western public opinion in general have ever identified and do not identify Russia and Europe. They see in Russia a special cultural world, a special civilization, different from both the West and the East. Russian civilization, more than 1000 years old, was built on different foundations than the West. And one of the foundations of the originality of Russian political development was the understanding of the place, role and significance of the state in the life of society, the attitude towards it and its policies.
The concepts of "Russian society", "Russian power", "Russian state" reflect Russia's own unique experience, the archetypes of which have been reproduced throughout the entire political history, right up to the present time.
Researchers have long noted the special role of the state in the history of Russia. For Russia as an original country, some problems of statehood are characteristic, which can be considered in five questions.
The first question of modern Russian statehood lies in the field of the choice of landmarks. We all know the classical definitions of the state, and regardless of which of the classics of which direction of scientific thought they belong, in fact, they are reduced to a trinity: people, territory and power. The state is a people that independently and sovereignly controls itself on its historical territory. But we must not forget the fundamental: there are no ideal once and for all constructed models of the state, its organs and institutions. Not a single state in the world, sensibly assessing itself, can declare that it has embodied the model of an ideal state, the aspiration for which was indicated by Plato in his "Republic".
At each stage of the millennial development of the Russian statehood, we, Russians, Russians as a state-formed people ask themselves a significant question: what is the purpose of our state. The beginning of the new millennium was no exception. Let us ask ourselves the question: what does the world and domestic experience of state development give, what does Russia need to rethink today to ensure the security and well-being of the Russian people? We are forced to admit once again that Russia is characterized by a number of “uniqueness”. Moreover, these are not lyrical reflections on the "mysterious soul" and "special path", and not the subject of national pride of the Great Russians, but the recognition of the objective difficulties of governing such a country. In Russia, there have always been (and still exist) paternalistic relations between citizens and the authorities, when the state appears in the role of a "father", a master, and a citizen - as a ward, a supplicant. It is from the totality of these very relations that the political tradition of personifying power grows, linking all appointments and transformations with the name of the leader, leader.
Against this background, the assertions about the state, which exists only and exclusively to provide services to the population, that we can afford a weak state and a weak state apparatus, and most importantly, that business and civil society flourish, look somehow unconvincing. I can hardly say better than the President of Russia in his 2003 Address to the Federal Assembly. “All our historical experience testifies that a country like Russia can live and develop within its existing borders only if it is a strong power. In all periods of the country's weakening - political or economic - Russia has always and inevitably faced the threat of disintegration. "
The second question of modern Russian statehood. Could it exist strong Russia without a strong central government? No.
From the very beginning, our country emerged as a country where the interests of the state were more important than the dominant national groups, classes, estates, dynastic interests, etc. The role of the state in relation to all spheres of public life in pre-revolutionary Russia turned out to be exceptionally great. It increased even more during the Soviet period of Russian history, when the party-state apparatus tried to bring under its control practically all aspects of public and private life. In the interaction of society and the state, the state has always played the main role. All the most significant transformations and restructuring were initiated by him, and society is only mobilized for the implementation of the next public project. Despite the fact that the state power itself experienced "weaknesses" and experienced crises, the relationship between the state and society has never changed significantly.
Therefore, even today we have no alternative to the development of a strong presidential power. Therefore, we may well speak of a triad: a strong economy - a strong presidential power - a strong power. Moreover, the characteristic "strong power" does not conflict with the tasks of establishing a democratic system and principles the rule of law, and a "strong power" inevitably presupposes the presence of a powerful military machine, without which Russia simply will not find a place on the political map of the world. The state in Russia has always been thought of as personocentric, when the rulers absorb the political whole, embodying its main parameters.
The third question of modern Russian statehood, can Russia survive as a strong single state, remaining multi-confessional, multi-ethnic? Our main ally in this matter is the history of Russia. I dare to assert that with all the difficulties of expanding the territorial boundaries of the Russian state, Russia has never known interethnic and religious wars. Tolerance was characteristic of the peoples of Russia not so much out of kindness of soul, but as a subconscious feeling that something else would lead to war and the death of the state.
A strong modern Russian state is predetermined to be a federal state. There are limits to both decentralization and centralization of Russia. But it is a strong central state power that will be able to guarantee every citizen of the country, in whatever of its many regions he may be, full protection and observance of his rights and freedoms. The Russian state and Russian society, while affirming the federal structure of the country, should consider the federal structure not as an end in itself, but as a means of more effective state administration.
The fourth question of modern Russian statehood. This is a matter of local government. All measures to divide powers between levels of government, to improve legislation, especially in the field of social policy, to empower local authorities additional powers were carried out with the same mistake: the Russian citizen was removed from the decisions made, he was not consulted very much, his interests are often simply not taken into account. The new quality of the Russian state cannot be ensured without a new quality of local authorities. It is at this level that a qualitative change of priorities should take place. The purpose of regional and local authorities is not in management, not in administration, but in providing services to citizens and businesses. And this is already a question not only of the quality of institutions, but of the quality of people's life.
Here we come to the fifth question of modern Russian statehood. Services to citizens are provided by civil servants, that is, the same citizens, but empowered in resolving a particular issue. And this is no longer a question of the quality of institutions, but a question of the quality of the management process itself.
Indeed, it is possible in a historically short time to change the structure of state power and the system of state administration. It is much more difficult to change the managerial mentality, to establish in the consciousness of an official the perception of a citizen who has addressed him not as an annoying burden (at best, at worst, as additional source monetary allowance), but as a consumer of the services that he is obliged to provide to this citizen. Therefore, the problem of getting rid of corruption is one of the important problems, the solution of which will make it possible to form a strong Russian state.
These problems are extremely relevant for modern Russia, since the weakening of state structures, active lobbying by oligarchic structures of their narrow group interests, which often run counter to national interests, are expressed quite clearly.
4. Russian statehood in modern times
The study of Russian statehood is important for determining the attitude of Russian society to Western models and values. Failure to take into account the identity of the peoples of Russia can lead to the fact that many models that have justified themselves in the West may be rejected in Russian society.
The main feature modern statehood Russia - its transitional nature, transitional to a new social system.
What is the new social order? This question has no clear answer. At the same time, it is obvious that Russia has abandoned the socialist model of organizing the life of society, the socialist structure of state power, the socialist mode of production. A market economy is being formed in Russia based on a variety of forms of ownership and freedom of entrepreneurship. At the same time, Russian society cannot build the capitalism that existed during the development of the Marxist theory, since that capitalism practically does not exist. The modern Western society, on the model of which it is supposed to transform our society, is usually called post-industrial. Its distinctive features are:
1) balance of interests of various groups, strata, individual individuals;
2) balance between private initiative and general laws of market relations;
3) a combination of freedom and justice - the eternal ideals of mankind;
4) the formation of the rule of law.
A certain transition period lies on the way to achieving these goals. Among the specific features of the transitional period in which modern Russian society is located, one should name the presence of elements of a totalitarian past and, at the same time, a number of democratic institutions, for example, a multiparty system, glasnost, the division of a single state power into three branches, and the institution of a referendum. As for the totalitarian elements, we can state the preservation in certain areas of the old administrative practice, the desire to return some of the old order. The combination of elements of the new and the old leaves an imprint on the organization of state power, on the state-legal regime, relations between the center and localities.
Characterizing the form of government in modern Russia, it can be assumed that a mixed form of government with a combination of elements of the presidential and parliamentary republics, with a significant preponderance towards the presidential one, will remain for the entire transitional period. The transitional state is always unstable, therefore, deviations in the direction of both one and the other republic are possible. The skills of democratic governance, including self-organization and self-government, are not fully developed in Russia. But practice shows that under a presidential republic, such skills cannot be developed. Therefore, some scientists and politicians believe that Russia should develop towards a parliamentary republic. But so far this is only a forecast.
The state structure of modern Russia is also characterized by a transitional state. The current constitutional consolidation of the federal structure of Russia is a political compromise of different interests and approaches to the state structure of the country. The continuation of this compromise was the contractual process - the conclusion of agreements between the Russian Federation and its individual subjects. There is a fair opinion that the conclusion of treaties devalues the role of the Constitution of the Russian Federation in the life of society, since the constitutional regulation of federal relations is replaced by treaty ones, the inequality of the legal status of the subjects of the Federation is established, which leads to conflicts within it.
The state of transition and contradiction is also inherent in the state-legal regime that has developed in today's Russia. There is an interweaving of various regulators of social relations: from indisputable state regulations to turning to traditions, customs, business habits; from elements of strict state control to the establishment of transparency, pluralism of opinions and beliefs, self-government principles, self-organization of the population, etc.
The transitional stage was clearly marked in the functioning of the Russian statehood. This is expressed, in particular, in the fact that the Russian state is beginning to gradually master the new role of "public servant" for it, and the proportion of general social, general democratic, humanistic principles is increasing in the content of its functions.
During the transition period, the relationship between the state and the institution of property changes. State property is increasingly acting as the material basis of state power. However, state property, being in the management and actual possession of the state apparatus, should be used not for the needs of this apparatus, but primarily for social purposes: to smooth out the negative consequences of entering market relations, including the consequences of unemployment, a sharp contrast between poverty and wealth, to help people with reduced working capacity, other socially vulnerable segments of society, as well as to support the education system, health care, art, and the development of basic sciences.
Securing equal legal status and equal protection of all forms of property at the constitutional level, the Russian state does not consider the right to private property as absolute. Owning private property implies certain social obligations to society. This means that private property can be limited, and the basis for such a limitation is the public interest, the common good, the public good. At the same time, public interests are understood as the interests of civil society.
Thus, with the transition of Russia to a new social system, the role of the state in establishing legal regime various forms of ownership, in resolving conflicts between owners, the channels of state control over the implementation of the owner's powers are expanding.
Taking into account the specifics of Russian society, the leading role of the state will remain for the entire transition period to the market. This trend is due to the following groups of circumstances:
1) only the state, as an official representative of society, is able to develop and implement a specific economic policy nationwide;
2) through legislation, the state can regulate property relations, establish legal basis market functioning;
3) the state has a special apparatus for the protection and protection of the rights and freedoms of the individual;
4) accumulates through the state budget means of ensuring the economic and other security of society.
To fulfill these tasks, a strong state is necessary, but at the same time society must be strong in order to force the complex mechanism of state power to act within the framework of the Constitution and control the government system.
It was indicated above that the formation of Russian statehood is greatly influenced by the specifics of national relations, since Russia is a multiethnic state. Hence the need for constant attention of state structures to national problems.
The processes of democratization and renewal in our country have contributed to the growth of national self-awareness of all the peoples inhabiting it. This, in turn, led to national confrontation of peoples in some regions, to interethnic conflicts.
Several levels of the conflict situation in modern Russia can be distinguished: the first level is relations between the federal center and the republics, the latter's striving for equality not with other subjects, but with the Russian Federation; the second - the movement of subjects, built on a territorial basis, for the possession of the status of state formations (republics); the third is personal and everyday life, within the framework of which there is a conflict between the indigenous and non-indigenous populations; the fourth is the problem of the return of the peoples repressed during the Stalinist rule to their historical homeland.
Russian interethnic relations are a complex, multi-level system of various factors. The conflict situation is not the only indicator of the unfavorable development of national relations. But it testifies to the fact that the existing state and legal structures are not able to fully resolve the current situation in civilized ways.
It would be wrong to regard the surge of national problems in our country as a cost of the transition period, i.e. as a temporary phenomenon. The experience of foreign countries and world experience in general show that the national aspect is a constant companion of the development of statehood in a multinational society. The aggravation of interethnic relations is observed in many multiethnic states (Belgium, India, etc.), there are searches for new methods and ways to mitigate interethnic conflicts. Not a single multiethnic state is guaranteed against interethnic conflicts, despite developed democratic institutions and economic prosperity.
The development of statehood is significantly influenced by the factor of ethnicity, i.e. the genetic continuity of the peoples inhabiting the country, the originality of their way of life, language, national culture, historically formed national psychology, which reflects the individual characteristics of the people. Since ethnicity is a constant factor in the life of a multinational society, it is important to learn how to live in these conditions and to treat national relations as a kind of control object. This requires, in turn:
1) constant consideration by the state authorities of the changing situation in the development of national relations;
2) search for means and methods to anticipate the imbalance of interests;
3) increased attention to the national needs of individual peoples (the ability to use the national language, national symbols, customs, culture, etc.);
4) the development of ideas and goals that unite peoples, ensuring the preservation of the integrity of society. A nationwide idea should lead to social harmony, to unite peoples for the sake of achieving common goals. The nationwide idea represents a certain type of human solidarity. For modern Russia, such an idea is a means of combining the interests of the state with the interests of various segments of the population and each person.
IN recent times great attention is paid to state-confessional relations, since through them the state of modern Russian statehood is revealed. It is important to note that Russian society perceives religion, various confessional associations of citizens as part of the culture of the people, as carriers of universal values, historical national traditions and a factor in the spiritual and moral revival of society. And although the regime of a secular state is enshrined in the Constitution of the Russian Federation, there has not been any actual isolation of the state from confessions; on the contrary, they cooperate in many spheres of life. It takes the following forms:
a) in solving social issues (mission of mercy);
b) in the resolution of armed conflicts (peacekeeping mission);
c) in uniting society to solve spiritual and moral problems;
d) in the formation of a certain worldview, including the attitude towards state power, politics, world events;
e) in strengthening ties with fellow believers and followers of the doctrine abroad.
By its nature and essence, cooperation between the state and religious associations has the features of a partnership of a special kind, i.e. they act as equal partners in relations affecting the interests of the whole society.
The fundamental principle of the legal status of confessions in modern Russia is the equality of all confessions among themselves and with the state.
At the same time, at present, state control over the organization and functioning of various religious associations is being strengthened. It is aimed at suppressing the appearance on the territory of Russia of false religious groups, total sects, encroaching on the health, psyche and life of people.
The legislation establishes the following forms of state control over confessional associations:
1) preliminary control of the registering authorities over the declared goals and areas of activity of religious organizations, including the conduct of a religious expert examination of a specific doctrine;
2) subsequent control over compliance with legislation, statutory goals and objectives of the activities of religious organizations;
3) specialized financial control over the work of enterprises and organizations created by confessional communities, in particular over the payment of taxes, if such enterprises and organizations are profitable;
4) control over the implementation of the ownership right to religious property in accordance with its purpose;
5) licensing of the activities of educational institutions of religious education.
Modern conditions for the development of Russian statehood dictate the need to build state-confessional relations on fundamentally new foundations. It is about achieving a kind of symphony of relations between the state and religious communities.
The transitional state of Russian statehood is characterized by the revision of a number of positions in the relationship between the individual and the state. There is a gradual abandonment of the priority of the interests of the state and the principle of inalienability of natural human rights, their respect, legal protection of the individual from arbitrariness is being introduced government agencies and officials.
However, one can observe the other extreme, when the unlimited priority of the interests of the individual over the interests of society is proclaimed. This diminishes the importance of the individual's responsibilities to other people and society as a whole. Therefore, there are limits to the realization of individual rights and freedoms, they are determined by general guidelines, constitutional and other legislation, direct prohibitions of specific actions and deeds, a system of responsibilities, as well as the values adopted in society. Hence, the main conditions for limiting human rights and freedoms are:
1) the establishment of restrictions only by law and only for the observance and respect of the rights and freedoms of others, as well as public interests and moral requirements;
2) proportionality of restrictions to the essential content of human rights and freedoms, i.e. restrictions should not change the content of these rights and freedoms;
3) legal restrictions based on serious reasons. At the same time, control should be provided for the state power itself, so that it cannot abuse law-limiting means.
The policy of the Russian state in the field of human rights should be based on clear principles and guidelines, which include:
a) freedom of choice of lifestyle;
b) a combination of individual autonomy and self-governing collectivist principles in relations with society and the state;
c) social justice;
d) social responsibility;
e) no discrimination on any grounds;
f) renunciation of violence in the settlement of social conflicts.
5. Prospects for the development of statehood in Russia
Today Russia is faced with a choice of the path of development of its statehood. On the one hand, the country is rapidly overcoming Negative consequences 90s. On the other hand, overcoming internal challenges and obstacles, it is actively confronting external ones, the toughest and most difficult of which is the forced globalization of the world. In order to skillfully resist it, a clear and consistent doctrine of development is needed. In other words, it is necessary to answer the question of who we are, where we are going and what are our further goals. Among these issues, the topic of statehood in its various statements and representations will be central and fundamental.
Accordingly, the idea of a strong state is more relevant today than ever. At the same time, there should be an awareness of the dependence of the rights and freedoms of citizens on specific historical conditions, the degree of development of legal consciousness and ethics, as well as the priorities of the interests of the whole (state, society) over the interests of a part (individual, social stratum, political party).
The order established in modern Russia thanks to the policy of V. Putin is, by and large, an achievement, since in the nineties social solidarity in society was lost and, for a number of reasons, the process did not begin. social differentiation, but progressive social decay. Under these conditions, the main instrumental socio-political idea of the state is the idea of consolidating society.
In other words, there should be an awareness that in the modern world it can really exist only as a highly centralized nation state, as a state characterized by a high degree of institutionalization, as a state headed by a nationally and strategically oriented power elite. The restoration of a strong state will take place in unfavorable international conditions, which may be intensified by unfavorable factors of the internal order.
At the same time, the challenges of globalization do not mean the inevitable decline of national statehood. The forms of government have changed, and therefore the strategy of the state, therefore, the new role of the state in the globalizing economy should not be assessed as decreasing or even disappearing altogether - it is simply changing. The ability of the state to make a positive contribution to economic development is determined not only by its strength, but by its ability to create and maintain "network structures", within which it, together with private group interests, develops and implements an effective, coordinated and purposeful system of economic management inside and outside state borders ...
Conclusion
So, the analysis of modern Russian statehood allows us to note that its development is proceeding in the general course of the laws inherent in the world community and world civilization. At the same time, this development takes place according to its own special laws inherent only in Russia. This is due to the historical, national, spiritual and cultural identity, as well as the geopolitical position of the country.
We can say that the evolution of Russian statehood will depend on the choice of landmarks and the understanding that there can be no standards of statehood. It will largely depend on the development of a strong central government capable of protecting the interests of citizens in a multi-confessional country, on the possibility of including a citizen in the local self-government system, changing the bureaucratic mentality and modernizing constitutional norms with a focus on national interests.
Therefore, it is necessary to achieve a value agreement in society on the basis of moral, social, political and other values that are shared by the bulk of the population. It should not be about a new version of the implementation of the ideas of the "social contract", but about the state's concern for the practical implementation of the constitutional rights of citizens to life, work, health care, personal safety, welfare, education, freedom, property, justice and personal dignity of everyone ...
List of used literature
1. Theory of state and law / Alekseev S.S. / Textbook. M .: - 2005.
2. Formation of Russian statehood: post-crisis tendencies // Strategies of Russia in the historical and world space / Baranov N.А. / M .: Scientific expert, 2009.
3. What happens to Russian system public administration / Guskova T. / magazine "Power" No. 6, 2008.
4. Russian statehood in the context of historical traditions / Diners V / magazine "Vlast" No. 2, 2008.
5. Genesis of views on the formation of the state territory and the state border of the Russian state / Palamar N / magazine "Vlast" No. 4, 2008.
6. Personality, society, state in the context of the problem of combating corruption / Tereshchenko I. / magazine "Vlast" No. 3, 2009.
7. On the problems of Russian statehood.
Access code: http://www.glebfetisov.ru/lib/speeches/index.php - heading. from the screen
8. Russian statehood / Yakovlev A.M. / journal "Social Sciences and Modernity" No. 5, 2002.
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In domestic and foreign historiography, the main factors that determined the originality of the development of Russia are usually distinguished, such as natural-climatic, geopolitical, religious (and a number of others) that determined the features of Russian history (Fig. 1).
Figure 1 - Factors of the Russian historical process
Various factors play a huge role in the historical development of peoples.
Human interaction with the environment in the process of production activity largely influences the character, mentality. The influence of the geographic environment is manifold. Various geographic areas provide various possibilities for this. Some of them are so well suited for human life that they do not create the prerequisites for changing the environment, and hence the growth of needs and, ultimately, development. Others are so unfavorable that they impede any transformation. The most rapidly developing territories are located at the crossroads of geographical routes connecting different peoples, near the centers of civilizations. Progress is facilitated by the proximity to more developed countries. This triggers a steady drive for improvement.
The originality of Russia is largely determined by its geographical position between Europe and Asia - the world of modernization and the world of tradition. This factor leaves an imprint on the historical development of Russia. In its development, it is approaching either Europe, a progressive civilization, or Asia, an eastern civilization. Therefore, Russian civilization is often called a drifting society. In Russia itself, starting from the 18th century. society is divided into two civilizations - European and soil. And the dispute between the Westernizers and the Slavophiles is still not over.
The main natural factor was the continental nature of the location of the territory of Russia. Sea until the 18th century did not play a significant role in Russian history. Since Russia was located away from the main trade routes, trade was poorly developed in the country. She lagged behind European countries in the formation of the market, the development of capitalism.
Constant colonization of lands contributed to the establishment of an extensive character economic development... The uniformity of natural factors characteristic of the territories developed by the Eastern Slavs led to the uniformity of economic activity in all zones of settlement. In Europe, the abundance of mountains favored the specialization of the economy, promoted the development of commodity exchange between the populations of the mountains and valleys. In Russia, the monotony of the landscape created weak preconditions for the specialization of the economy and domestic trade. The peoples of Europe developed on the basis of the Roman culture and borrowed a lot from ancient culture.
On the way of settling the Slavs, there were no peoples with an ancient high culture. Only contacts with Byzantium influenced the culture of Russia. However, the early translation of liturgical books into Slavic by the monks Cyril and Methodius in the 9th century. made the study of the Greek language optional and, therefore, familiar with the ancient culture.
Russia constantly came into contact with the Steppe, until the 18th century. experienced the threat of devastating invasions of the steppe dwellers. It slowed her down internal development, historical progress.
The peculiarities of the natural environment of the settlement of Russians largely determined their character and prevailing values. The density of the population of Europe, limited resources contributed to the intensification of the economy, the desire for innovation. In Russia, on the contrary, the vastness, the wealth of resources gave rise to the habit of an extensive, consumerist attitude towards natural resources... It is well known that throughout the entire territory of the territory that made up the historical core of the Russian state, there were marginal soils. This predetermined a consistently low yield. Another reason for the low yield was the lack of time for thorough cultivation of the land due to the very short cycle of agricultural work - 125-130 working days. There was not enough time to procure feed for livestock. Together with a very long period of stall keeping of livestock, this led to low productivity of livestock raising and, as a result, to an acute shortage of fertilizers.
The climatic factor has a great influence on the historical development. In Europe, temperature fluctuations are up to 10-20 degrees per year, in Russia they range from 35 to 40. The warmer climate allowed Europeans to engage in agriculture for most of the year and get used to systematic work. There was no need to rush to plant or harvest. In Russia, due to the short spring, turning into hot summer, the harvest depends on the rate of sowing - "the day feeds the year." Summer is a period of extreme tension. And then, within 5 - 6 months, a long period of leisurely passive labor. Being in a tough time trouble, the Russian farmer had to actually invest in the land such a volume of labor in 21-25 working days, which in more favorable conditions would take 40 days. In practice, this meant for the peasant the inevitability of work without sleep and rest, work night and day, using all the reserves of the family (labor of children, old people and women in men's work).
Thus, the peasant economy of the indigenous territory of Russia had limited opportunities for the production of commercial agricultural products. These restrictions are due to unfavorable natural and climatic conditions.
An unusually low yield, limited size of peasant plowing, and a weak base for cattle breeding led to the fact that a relatively low volume of total surplus product was inherent in Russian society. This was of great importance for the formation of a certain type of statehood. The ruling class was forced to create rigid levers of the state mechanism aimed at withdrawing that share of the total surplus product that went to the development needs of the state itself, the ruling class, and society as a whole. It is from here that the centuries-old tradition of the despotic power of the Russian autocrat comes, and from here comes the origins of serfdom, the severity of which had no analogy in the world. Serf labor also significantly underestimated the desire for high quality labor. The population of the North of Russia, who did not know serfdom, was always much more active. This attitude towards work has developed another value - patience. The harsh natural working conditions demanded collective work, hence collectivism as the main feature of the Russian mentality. The serf peasant in Europe fled to the city, which was an island of democracy and law, freedom from the feudal lords. There was nowhere else to run, since there were no empty seats. In Russia, they fled not to the city, where there were the same feudal lords, but to the Cossacks, to undeveloped lands. As a result, urban, bourgeois values were developed in Europe, and communal, collectivist ones in Russia. The European solved his problems by developing bourgeois prudence and self-interest, and the Russian - affirming the equalizing collectivist ideals. The flight of the population to the outskirts impeded the development of cities.
High yields on newly reclaimed lands, the absence of hunger, free land grabbing, and the absence of regular taxation created the pre-state ideal of free life, which entered popular culture. Colonization contributed to the discrete course of Russian history. Strengthening the centralization of power several times gave way to its weakening. The adoption of Christianity in the Byzantine version also had a significant impact on the historical development of our country. The Catholic Church, due to its relative independence from the secular rulers, represented a greater opposition force than the Orthodox Church. And more successfully defended the interests of the population before the secular authorities. At the same time, Orthodoxy gave great freedom to inner life. The Orthodox Church knew no orders. It is characterized by internal unity - conciliarity, understood as participation in a common absolute.
As a result of all the above factors, the community, not private property, has become the main values in the social organization of Russian society. The state is viewed not as a superstructure, but as a backbone. Statehood has a sacred character. The state, society, personality are not divided, not autonomous, but mutually permeable, integral, conciliar.
Conclusion: the development of Russian civilization was influenced by all of the above factors in aggregate, in their complex.
Why is Russia's history so different from other countries?
Today there are many works devoted to Russia as a special civilization, the “special path of development” of our country is often mentioned, but the whole complex of factors that influenced the formation of Russia as a civilization different from the West and the East is rarely considered.
If earlier the peculiarities of the development of Russia were explained by the existing ideology (although they contradicted some of the basic tenets of Marxism), now there is no explanation at all. And then in our history much is difficult to explain: why, for example, it was in our country that a socialist revolution took place (in other countries, similar revolutions took place with our support), why the history of our country is so different from the world path of development. Much in Russian history will remain incomprehensible if one does not take into account the totality of natural, geographic, geopolitical and a number of other factors that have influenced our history, culture and economy. These factors were ignored in judgments in the USSR as well, explaining the unique path of development of the state by ideological reasons.
The question is, what does the development of the state depend on? What factors influence it?
All people are the same, one head, two arms, two legs, states today with similar political elites, similar socio-economic systems. Why are some of them world leaders, while others are constantly lagging behind in development? What factors influence the development of the state, its well-being?
Why is Russia different from other countries? Why, working hard like the damned, can't we create a normal life? Perhaps, apart from Russia, there is no other country in the world concerned with such issues. Only our opinions about our history, people and authorities are not just different, but often opposite. Only we have disputes: are we the East or the West? We are the North.
The Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote in his "Course of Russian History" that before studying the history of any country, it is necessary to find out where it is located, what natural conditions it has, what kind of climate is in a given territory. Before talking about the "special path of development" of Russia, it is necessary to answer the question of what were the natural-geographical, historical, socio-economic conditions and how they influenced the development of the country.
The most populated areas of the planet, where 70% of the inhabitants of the Earth live, occupy only 7% of the land. But these are the most blessed places! And our Russia, where only 2.5% of the world's population lives, is spread over 12% of the land! But our entire vast country is located around the Pole of Cold in the Northern Hemisphere.
What can be influenced economically by the climate?
Labor productivity in agriculture, yield in comparison with the West (2-3 to 1 in our country, 6-8 in the West). But it was agriculture that then indicated the development of the country. What could we accumulate with such a yield? The basis of welfare at the initial stage of the country's development was determined by income from agriculture. In Russia, due to the harsh climate, there were very low yields. And any product manufactured in Russia, because of this factor, was more expensive than in Europe, with which we had to compete in order to maintain independence.
We live in the coldest country in the world, where no one else could survive. Of the two hundred countries in the world in terms of the severity of the climate, only Mongolia can compare with us. In Western Europe, a temperature drop of up to -10-15 degrees Celsius causes a complete disorganization of economic life (no transport, a complete collapse of the economy, frosts and snowfalls in Europe). We live in such conditions all the time.
Our people are no worse and no better than any other. Yes, we were born in a place where it is very difficult to live, and in some places, it is generally impossible. For half of our territory (north of the line Petersburg - Vyatka - Khanty-Mansiysk - Magadan), there is no need to talk about any agriculture, except for reindeer husbandry and small vegetable gardens. In our middle lane, agricultural work takes place from May to October, while, for example, in France, it is actually all year round. The Russian crop was on non-chernozem soil by itself-2 or by itself-3, and in Western Europe as early as the 18th century - by itself-12.
Therefore, the French peasant could afford to be an individual farmer, and he lived well, and the Russians from time immemorial clustered in communities, because only mutual assistance in work allowed them to somehow get out, and the old people only survived, that with the help of "society". This is the most important factor in shaping the culture and character of a nation. It was impossible to live alone in Russia precisely because of the harsh climatic conditions. One family was physically unable to survive (build a house, not a tent in the summer, grub up a field in a short summer, plow a field, harvest, etc.). This is not Europe with its warm climate (Gulf Stream).
The harsh climate also influenced the formation of a special type of mentality of the population. The community that has adapted to existence in our country is called Russians (it is no coincidence that it answers the question - which one?). These are those who have adapted to life in the existing conditions of Russia. It was impossible to live alone in such conditions. Hence a much stronger community than in the West, collectivism instead of individualism, cooperation and mutual assistance instead of competition and rivalry. All this formed a special type of mentality of the Russian people, the priority of community values, collectivism, the role of the state in ensuring the survival of the population in harsh conditions.
First: Climatic factor (low temperatures affecting yields and production costs), but later, with the development of industry, it did not become easier. All manufactured products up to 20-30% are energy spent on their production. Our energy costs are incomparable with the West. A lot of other consequences of a cold climate: high construction costs (more expensive than in any other country) - the depth of the foundation must be below the freezing line (in Iceland, Malaysia, China, it is enough to asphalt the site and install a canopy, walls only from the wind, two-story buildings in Germany, no foundation at all). In our country, even on the southwestern border, the depth of freezing is 110 cm, closer to the Volga region - already 170, about the Urals and Siberia, you can not mention. The cost of the foundation even under the usual country house- 25% of the total cost of its construction. There are no such expenses in the West.
Communication in the ground, and not as in Europe on top. Infrastructure in Russia is prohibitively expensive, in the West there is no CHP system, steam heating (except for Denmark), due to the fact that such systems were not built at one time (the land is private, so the laying of communications is very expensive).
Due to the climate, the cost of resources is high(mining infrastructure, still the remnants of the Soviet, state, private trader does not build: expensive, for example, Kovykta). Our oil is 25-30 dollars per barrel production and 3-4 from them, you can not talk about other resources at all. Even gold mining is unprofitable in the north. Stocks are constantly decreasing. On the moon, for example, there are also many resources, but we do not extract them. Our resources are like the moon. It is much more profitable to extract oil in the Persian Gulf rather than in Tyumen, diamonds in Angola, and not in Yakutia, bauxite in Tunisia, and not in Karelia, etc.
The harsh climate and vast territory contributed to the fact that production costs in our country are higher than in other countries. For the economy to function in such unfavorable conditions, it was required government regulation conditions for the use and movement of capital. With open borders and uniform world prices, capital sought to go where production costs are lower. To save a domestic economy that was not competitive due to the climate and distances from the ruin, protectionism was needed, the protection of the domestic market from the world market. It is no coincidence that the most serious "breakthroughs" in the history of our country, periods of its accelerated development are associated with the "closure" of Russia from the world market. This tendency is most clearly manifested during the reign of Peter 1 and the years of Stalin's rule, when the country closed its borders from the import of cheap goods produced in Russia, but at a higher cost, by imposing huge import duties under Peter or with the help of the state monopoly on foreign trade during the years of Soviet power.
It turns out that the production of any product in our territory is associated with high costs, higher than in any other country in the world (harsh climate, distances, low agricultural productivity, frosts). Production in Russia, even simple living, is too expensive, but where to get resources for development, if everything is more expensive?
The second factor: the geographic location of Russia. Due to the high cost of extracting resources, there is a constant shortage of them and the constant expansion of the territory in the pursuit of resources. Increased spending on border security, the army. Geographical location (expensive transport, long distances, low population density). With our huge distances, the cost of transporting goods may turn out to be more expensive than the goods themselves, we transport goods using one of the most expensive types of transport - pipeline, auto, railway, air. The cheapest sea and river transport in the West, all the developed countries have access to the sea (we have a river only seasonal, in summer). An example of the cheapness of sea transport is tolling at aluminum smelters; we bring bauxite from Tunisia, not from the Kola Peninsula.
And what is the main capital made on? Remember “ star Wars". Even in science fiction, Americans show the main cause of the conflict - trade, trade routes. It is trade that brings the greatest profit. But here, too, Russia is limited in its capabilities: one port in the Baltic, on the Black Sea the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles under Turkish control. And what could we trade? Correctly raw materials. But its production in Russia is more expensive than elsewhere. Bauxite is easier to mine in Tunisia, oil in the Persian Gulf, diamonds in Angola, etc.
Another significant factor was that with an abundance of resources in Russia, there has always been a shortage of them. Extraction was expensive. In pursuit of resources, Russia was developing new and new lands, and therefore the economy developed along an extensive path. If now the main export product is energy, then earlier this function was performed by furs (soft currency). In Europe, with its overpopulation, in the pursuit of profit, they quickly "knocked out" the fur-bearing animal. And beyond the eastern borders of Russia lay vast tracts of undeveloped land, where it was possible to get furs, which was one of the main goods of Russian export. But it was also difficult to take it abroad and sell it, the access to the sea was broken only by Peter I at the beginning of the 18th century (otherwise how to sell it for a normal price?). It is these circumstances, as well as the need for direct access to trade routes, that influenced the formation of the vast territory of our country. But we settled in areas where no one lived, only rare settlements of hunters. It was only later that the reserves of resources were discovered. At the same time, the territory was not needed by anyone.
Territory size (border guards, army). Surroundings, length of borders. Lack of direct access to trade routes.
Third factor. Geopolitical position (the location between Europe and Asia caused the inevitability of constant military attacks from the East and the need to form a state on a military basis, the lack of direct access to trade routes).
Russia appeared between Europe and Asia, on the territory through which the waves of "migration of peoples" rolled, one of which led to the collapse of the great Roman Empire, its conquest by the Huns. Therefore, Russia was forced to form, first of all, as a military state. During the next wave of "migration of peoples" (struggle against the Mongols) in the XIII-XV centuries. to preserve Russia, it was necessary to enslave the population, unconditional submission to its authorities in order to free it from foreigners. And the state became the main political agent. In such conditions, strict one-man management and discipline are in demand, the possibilities for the formation of democracy are limited. All resources were directed to the survival of the country, the maintenance of the army. Unfavorable natural conditions led to the scarcity of the surplus product, but a significant part of this income was forced by frequent aggression to spend on defense. A special type of government was also formed, which were alien to the principles of democracy. These factors influenced the formation of a special type of government and political culture of the population.
“It is difficult to get rich in a territory, one half of which is in the permafrost zone, the other in the zone of external invasions from the outside” (Solonevich).
Fourth factor. State, not private economy.
Lack of capital led to the fact that in Russia, most of the population was poor, so there was a narrow domestic market(there is no one to buy the manufactured goods on a mass scale. The peasants were mostly self-sufficient, the townspeople were not enough, and the population also had little money (we did not have huge incomes from the colonies that were in the West. It was the colonies that ensured the industrialization of the West).
In order to develop and receive sufficient income, capital was forced to focus on government orders. This is primarily the army (weapons, supplies, etc.). The bourgeoisie, artificially and quickly created by the government, could not defend its rights before it, realizing that its well-being depends on its connection with the state (who will bite the hand that feeds you?). Therefore, in Russia, the bourgeoisie in the full sense of the word was never formed, it all largely depended on the government (compare with today). Which entrepreneurs are the most successful? Those associated with power. And civil society in the West began precisely with the bourgeoisie, which defended its interests before the state. Subsequently, more and more broad layers of the population were involved in this movement, until almost all citizens were covered. In Russia, this was impossible.
The development of Russia was also significantly influenced by the fact that until the beginning of the twentieth century we did not have full-fledged private property. In the West, the emergence of wealth was associated with land. The income received from the sale of agricultural products served as a source of accumulation. In Russia, however, land was not capital. Low productivity due to the cold climate made the land unprofitable for investments. And the presence of a huge array of undeveloped lands made it possible to develop virgin areas, use them to depletion, and then develop new territories. Extensive rather than intense development took place. There was no need for private ownership of land. If in the West the emergence of serfdom was associated with the receipt of profit from the ownership of land and the accumulation of capital, then in Russia - first of all, with the maintenance of people serving the state. In the West, any feudal lord could exist separately from the state. Owning property, land and people, he was largely independent of the actions of the authorities. In Russia, until the adoption by Peter III in 1762 of the Manifesto "On the Liberty of the Noble," every nobleman was obliged to serve the state, no matter how rich he was. Their well-being was entirely dependent on the location of the authorities. Isn't it very similar to today?
Most of the economy in Russia was owned or created with the help of the state. Why? The private traders did not have the means to create an industry, only an easy one, where there is a quick return. It was considered unreasonable to kill significant money in heavy industry (they would simply go broke). And the algorithm for the formation of the industry was “inverted”, the opposite of the western one. First, the state created heavy industry, then light industry was pulled up. Moreover, it was primarily the military industry that was created, which pulled everything else along with it. All this happened not because of our desire for dictatorship or some personal characteristics, but because of objective circumstances. In the West, for example, huge profits from the colonies made it possible to pass this path with much less losses. But even in this case, tens of millions perished during the formation of capitalism (which was not even close to being comparable to Russia in the 20th century, when we followed the same path).
Fifth factor. The adoption by Russia of a branch of Christianity different from Europe (Orthodoxy), which helped the formation of an almost separate civilization.
What is the main thing in the West? It is the existence of a civilization based on profit and calculation. An example, oddly enough, was shown by religion. It is thanks to Catholicism and Protestantism that a special ideology arose. The dogma of being chosen by God instilled a special ethic, thanks to which, in order to achieve success, a person used all possible means in order to break through to the top. And moral values in this case were understood as secondary. After all, if a person achieved success, then this was a sign of his chosenness by God. Election, mistrust and contempt for the weak, indulgences, Protestant ethics. All this helped to quickly develop a personal desire for wealth and success. In Russia, wealth is a gift of God, it must be shared, it is a gift from God so that you help your neighbor, in the West, wealth is a sign of being chosen.
The theory of "roller coasters".
As we have seen, in the course of natural development, Russia is doomed to a constant ever-increasing lag behind the West, due to the more difficult conditions (geographic, climatic, social, economic) of its existence. But why, then, Russia not only did not lag behind completely and irrevocably, but sometimes manages to be ahead (space, military-industrial complex, science, etc.).
Under such conditions, Russia has managed to keep up with the West, and sometimes to be on a par with it (in technical, scientific, production area), although at a lower standard of living of the population. For example, who wins a military confrontation? As a rule, the state where the economy is stronger.
Russia beats Sweden in the 17-18 centuries, before which the whole of Europe trembles, Turkey from the invasion of which the same West suffers, in the 19th century - Napoleon, who conquered Europe, in the 20th century - fascist Germany, which crushed the same highly developed Europe. Why is this happening?
The answer to this path of development of Russia is in its history.
Our climate has been the way it is for millennia. Due to geographic factors, the profitability of our production is lower than in the West, which means that very little is left for development, and until the 20th century, almost nothing remained, since everything was consumed or wasted for the sake of simple survival. The resource that we could have accumulated over these millennia is substantially less than that of the Western countries. For objective reasons, we should have long ago irrevocably lagged behind them in all respects.
When Russia develops calmly, it naturally lags behind other countries. There are applicants for its territory, wealth, Russia is being squeezed out. The answer to this is a mobilization spurt, with a tremendous exertion of forces, a complete rejection of even the necessary, at the expense of numerous human casualties. Russia is pulling up the army, equipment, military production, which pulls the civilian economy (metal for equipment, timber for the navy, cloth for uniforms, etc.) In the history of Russia, three such leaps can be distinguished, they are named after the names of the rulers, but in fact the direction was set by their predecessors: Ivan the Terrible, Peter 1, Stalin. There are many more small ones, but the largest - three (small: after the Mongol-Tatars in the 15th century, Napoleon, at the beginning of the 19th century, the Crimean War - in the middle of the 19th century, etc.).
The chronic shortage of resources affected the development of the economy, science, education and culture (funds are needed for development, and there are very few of them), dooming the country to lag behind Europe. But it was with European countries that we had to compete in order not to become their victim. The combination of unfavorable demographic and climatic conditions, constant external threat with a shortage of development resources (time, finance), it caused a contradiction between the tasks of the state (conditions for survival) and the population's capabilities to solve them. The way to resolve this contradiction was a mobilization scheme for the use of resources, which became the basis for the formation of a mobilization type of development. It was the type of development that was the key factor that determined the specifics of the organization of power and the political organization of society as a whole.
These features were associated with the "socialist path of development", which is still associated with a significant number of historians with the Marxist ideology and activities of the Bolsheviks. But ideology in the "Soviet project" was only a tool for building a model of the economy, corresponding to the above factors. If at the beginning the Bolshevik leaders used Marxism to justify their coming to power, then little remained of it. Instead of public property - state property, instead of a world revolution - the building of socialism in one country, instead of internationalism - national interests, etc. Since the second half of the 1920s. Stalin no longer proceeded from ideology, but from the practical expediency of his actions to strengthen statehood, building a self-sufficient economy. The reason for this is the incompatibility of the national market open to the world economy with the condition of maintaining the integrity and development of Russia. The rapid development of the country required a state monopoly on foreign trade, restrictions on private property, nationalization, etc. At first, these were forced actions (world economic blockade), but then they deliberately “closed” the country from the world market.
Moreover, in the history of Russia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. there was a practice of "openness" of the country, which brought huge losses (Witte's introduction of the "golden ruble"). Under the "free trade" capital "fled" from Russia. His own economy was destroyed, and investments in the country did not come (isn't it true it looks like today?). With costs in Russia higher than outside, its investors did not invest in the development of our production. That is why at the beginning of the 20th century, 3 crises passed in Russia, which led to three revolutions and ended in a civil war. Therefore, the "Soviet project" implemented by Stalin proceeded from the need to preserve the state monopoly of foreign trade introduced by the Bolsheviks, to "close" the country for the export of capital and thereby ensure economic development.
By the mid-30s. the foundations of a society unknown to the world were created. A number of researchers (A. Zinoviev, S. Kara-Murza, Panarin, etc.) indicate that not only ordinary citizens, but also the top leadership, did not realize the deep essence of the economic and political system created in the USSR.
If in the Western countries production developed for the sake of maximum profit, then in Russia, where the surplus product was scarce, the task of survival was in the foreground. In addition, the USSR was in a position of foreign policy isolation for a long time. The need for rapid industrialization and rearmament led to the emergence of a mobilization economy in our country. The economy in such conditions could not be built on the basis of the desire to make a profit. The Soviet economic system was thought of as a single national economic organism. The ownership of the means of production was public. Every Soviet citizen received certain benefits on his share of the public property (a penny rent, free education, health care, etc.). Since the price systems in the USSR and in the Western countries were fundamentally different, the Soviet economy could function normally only in conditions of isolation from the external market (otherwise everything that was cheaper in our country would simply be exported).
But production in the USSR was efficient if by efficiency we mean not profitability, but the ratio of costs and results. Even in agriculture, which was considered the most backward in Soviet economy, with the number of tractors per 1 thousand hectares of arable land 10 times less than that of Western farmers, the cost of a ton of grain was 3-4 times lower. Differently than in the West, they understood not only efficiency, but also the profitability of production. In the conditions of a mobilization economy, they did not strive for narrow economic efficiency, but for survival (the auto industry - tanks, mass production). Within the framework of such a model, they carried out industrialization in a short time, ensured victory in the war, rebuilt the destroyed economy, liquidated the US atomic monopoly, and were the first to enter space. But for a peaceful life, for existence in the conditions of scientific and technological revolution, such a model turned out to be insufficiently effective, modernization was required, but there were no worthy leaders or a force interested in it.
During the years of Soviet power, an infrastructure was created to ensure the survival of the population in harsh climatic conditions. It was created by the state and its main goal is to provide the population with products, without which survival is impossible (heat, electricity). This system was designed and built in Soviet times, in relation to the harsh conditions of Russia and the cultural norms that have developed in it over the millennia, as a system of common (even communal) use. In the USSR, the maintenance of housing and communal services was a matter of the state - the same as the maintenance of the army, police, etc. The state financed housing and communal services as a whole, as a large technical system that determines the viability of the country. After the 1990s. a significant part of it was transferred to private hands. But it was designed to ensure the survival of the population, not to make a profit. The state has invested huge sums of money to preserve and maintain the infrastructure. But a private owner, not interested in maintaining unprofitable structures, began to raise prices for services and collect payments from the population, and in order to ensure profit, he did not invest anything in maintaining the system in good condition. The state also reduced funding and the system began to collapse, as evidenced by frequent failures of life support systems. Not realizing the essence of the existence of such a system, the authorities tried to reform it according to the Western type. But in the West, due to other conditions, such systems simply did not exist. As a result, the old was destroyed, and the new was not created.
The same conclusions are valid for the whole complex of factors that influenced the formation of Russia as a special civilization, with a specific economy, politics, infrastructure, and mentality of the population. And now it is precisely the historical studies of the influence of the complex of the above-described factors on the formation of Russian civilization that are needed. Only by understanding and assessing their importance for the existence and development of the state, it is possible to carry out transformations. Ignoring them has already led the country to the loss of its identity, to the destruction of the fundamental principles that for a long time preserved a single and strong state (the Russian Empire and the USSR). Instead of the Soviet principles of life, new ideological, cultural, economic foundations were never comprehended and formulated that would help the formation of a new Russian statehood, would explain the features of our history, influencing the folding of the national economy and ensuring the development of Russia.
The following factors influence the development of statehood in Russia:
- a) the peasant question, i.e. the question of how best to connect the peasant to the land and consolidate the most beneficial way of managing the peasant and society;
- b) the national question, which has always been important for the development of Russian statehood, since the population of Russia is multinational;
- c) geopolitical issue, i.e. realization of the territorial interests of Russia and the influence of the country's geographical position on the state organization of society. The geopolitical position of Russia affects the ethnocultural strata of the population, their way of life, traditions, consciousness, etc. And this, in turn, directly affects the organization of the state life of the country. The conquests that Russia led in the past, annexing new territories to itself, also influenced the organization of political power: the state always had to be ready to protect the peoples of the outskirts from possible revenge.
Almost all peoples have geopolitical interests, including in the modern period;
d) production and consumption of alcohol
Prohibition under V.I. Lenin; vodka monopoly under I.V. Stalin, introduced in 1924; attempts by N.S. Khrushchev, to limit the production and consumption of alcohol and, conversely, increase its sales threefold under L.I. Brezhnev; attempts to solve the problem by cutting down vineyards under M.S. Gorbachev; the introduction of the state monopoly on the production and sale of alcohol again - all these were ways of solving the alcohol problem in Russia.
The problem of the influence of this factor on the development of statehood is controversial, although it has general social significance;
e) modernization, i.e. change in the quality of life. At present, modernization is understood as bringing up Russian society in certain areas to the level of world standards, including the protection of human rights.
Scientists studying the problems of Russian statehood unanimously note its specificity in comparison with Western states, emphasize its special state-legal spirit. For example, in the philosophical and sociological literature, four main features inherent in Russian statehood are named:
- 1) Orthodoxy as a form of collective consciousness;
- 2) autocracy, i.e. a strong state and centralization of state power;
- 3) community. In Russia, longer than in other countries, the community was preserved as a convenient form of life for the peasants. And this everyday aspect of the life of the Russian peasantry, which constituted the bulk of the country's population, left an imprint on the state organization;
- 4) colonization, i.e. transfer of traditional forms of organization to new territories.
All scientists, emphasizing the specificity of Russia, name the special mentality of the peoples of Russia, manifested in the originality of the economic structure, political and legal life, spirituality and psychological characteristics of the perception of the world.
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