Factors influencing Russian statehood. Russian statehood: features, modern problems and prospects
Bachilina I.L., Leading Researcher of the Institute of State and Rass RAS, D.Y.. // State and Law. - 1993. - №7. - p.21-30.
Modern reforms and statehood
Hovering the problems of statehood, it is necessary to recognize the following. Reform XIX century - Cancellation of serfdom February 19, 1861 created a legal basis for the development of capitalism in the structure of the multi-household economy of Russia, but retained on half a century its political system is almost unchanged. The political crisis agreed on the soil of the renewing economy. He was accelerated by the war and ended, as is known, two revolutions. Weave the bourgeois-democratic and proletarian ideologies that relevant political forces gave rise to a unique situation that determined the history of Russia for many decades.
In the Soviet period, due to the priority of politics over economies, the multi-household economy has turned into the economy of socialist state monopoly, suppressing all other development directions, except for the state.
Stagnation of the economy of the USSR of the 1980s, the conservatism of the political system, other factors led to a simultaneous movement in the aggravated form of economic and political reforms. Economy and politics have lost interdepending communications. The result is an explosion and economic, and political systems, the uncontrollability of the main processes.
Politics due to weak targets and landmarks, the development of legal and organizational mechanisms did not become the leading and maintenance of economic transformation. The process began, but ideological and organizational foundations were insolvent. Violation of patterns of policies and economics is the main reason for the current situation by the beginning of the 90s not only in the USSR, but also in other countries of Eastern Europe.
Understanding the insolvency of the political system in the conditions of stagnation of the economy gave rise to the destructive symptoms at first. The denial of the Soviet form of the organization of the representation of the interests of the population and the country as a whole led to the opposition of the legislative and executive authorities, the formation of the latter on the basis of the "novelty" of the composition of the authorities, mixing the functions of the legislative and executive authorities. These are the symptoms of the initial, rather reflex response to the deep processes, transforming society and its organization at the turn of the new century.
The suspension of the moment is the awareness of the value of the loss of statehood, in common for the multinational people of the organizing principle. Having achieved the creation of "his" statehood by the former republics of the USSR and the autonomy of the RSFSR, the equipment of their external attributes of states does not remove the problems of determining the functional appointment of the modern state, its role in organizing the development of society.
Answer the question of which the state should be today, which state will the countries who have survived the period of the pseudo-source organization - the task is the most difficult. It is impossible to get away from this issue. The answer to it should be formed taking into account the starting conditions of the end of our century, as well as factors determining the process of changing the essence of the modern state and statehood as the properties, quality of civil society.
When considering the topic of the topic, we are talking about the circumstances that form the state of the political power organization of the Company acting as a mechanism and a well-coordinated system by methods and means inherent in the achieved level of democracy. Such a design of statehood carried out on the basis of trust, orders, obligations of this system by the Society itself, close to the model of the public contract. And when the connections of society and the state-legal system are violated, the crisis comes. In this sense, the dynamics, a change in statehood, the reform of its individual parts - the process is natural. And the study of factors causing reforms is the indispensable condition for the policy of the development and functioning of the state.
System-forming conditions and statehood factors
The problem of determining the essence of the modern state, its best device, taking into account new conditions for the development of society, is not a purely Russian or Soviet problem. During the 80-90s, the topic of public authority reform does not come down from the agenda of international forums. The question of the interaction of economic reforms and public Policy, state participation in solving social problems, environmental, improving the efficiency and efficiency of the state apparatus, translation to new information Technologycarrying out other innovation in state Structuresoh. But for states that are recently recently to the socialist system, this issue is more aggravated. Here the change in the basic conditions of the formation of the state is most pronounced.
If you analyze such signs of the state, such as the territory and georasource basis, the population, then it should be recognized that in recent years in the Russian Federation they have undergone significant changes.
Territorial changes in connection with the formation of independent states on the territory of the USSR also determined the state of the resource-economic basis of these countries. The broken economic, technological, production bonds of parts of the USSR suggests that territorial and resource conditions for Russia are in a new start and require analysis and accounting in solving problems of statehood.
Another composite state is the population. It still remains multinational. However, devoid of state guarantees of the rights and protection of their interests in the oblivion of social bundle and impoverishment, lumenization and criminalization of survival conditions, it also undergo deep changes. The migration of the population caused by the redistribution of residents of Russia and the former allied republics is complemented by the migration caused by the reduction of the systematic regulated employment of the population, the "leakage of the minds" due to the lack of guarantees for the creative intelligentsia. This changes the composition and state of the population, the legal status of the personality. Structural stability and communication is also significantly violated. Criterion for the protection of the interests of the population under these conditions, many ideologues consider national statehood. And this becomes another condition for the bundle of the population on the basis of national sovereiga.
If you take for an axiom of formula M.M. Speransky, which determined the forces of the state as "1) the forces of the physical or personal of each member, the state of the component, 2) the forces of industry or public labor, 3) the forces of popular respect or honor and that the other forces are impossible to imagine, it should be noted that the events of the latter The years touched all these forces. And, perhaps, the most privileged forces of human rights, "the forces of respect and honor" of each person and the whole community, united by the Russian state.
If you go to the traditional attributes of the state, then in this part of the change is so significant that they will have to recognize: there are other starting conditions for the further development of statehood.
Orientation on the formation legal state And the doctrine of the separation of the authorities recognized in our country with a significant delay determined the right areas in the development of political reform. However, other conditions for the formation of the Russian state, the instability of the most social system, its economy, the nsd formation of political parties and the mechanisms of their activities, the delay of the process of updating the Constitution made these loyal beings ineffective. The statehood itself remains an unresolved problem, and its condition has not yet become stabilizing in the impact on the formation of a new structure of the economy and the conclusion of the country from the crisis.
To confirm the thesis on updating the start of the most important elements of statehood, it will also be fatally on the condition and role of the army. The collapse of the USSR - one of the strongest military powers led to changes in the military attributes of the state. It is re-forming the composition of the armed forces, the reduction of the military-industrial complex, the benchmarks of the use of military forces are changing, a new military doctrine is formed.
Thus, you can state a free or involuntary change in the most important starting conditions that need to be taken into account when setting the problem and decision-making regarding the design and strengthening of the current statehood. Russian Federation. It is in this regard that the question of factors that in one way or another affect the formation of the statehood of updated post-socialist states, including Russia, is of interest.
The system of factors can be represented by a set of internal and external interrelated circumstances. But each of these groups should be considered as a complex structure.
I. External factors for each individual country and its states perform at least two levels. The first combines the factors that can be designated as a planetary factors, globally existing on all states. The second combines the circumstances, developing for each individual state based on its external individual relations and relations with other states and their unions.
The factors of the first group, which, under the influence of the very logic of the development of society, are formulated most often in a dichotomy way and require international attention, the following are as follows.
- Protection of human rights and citizen, the right to development.
- Negative, often destructive consequences of industrialization, informatization, deep violations of the environmental, natural environment and as a result - awareness of the importance of developing planetary and regional measures to restore a healthy habitat, environmental safety.
- Excessive militarization and distribution of nuclear weapons, formation of weapons reduction trends.
- Hunger in underdeveloped countries and the inevitability of combating it, drug addiction, epidemic, etc., the threat of an ethnosphere.
- The combination of old methods of capturing and defense of territories (world and local wars) with new economic, technological methods of mastering resources.
- Increasing the role of national economies of developed countries through the internationalization of the economy, market, culture based on the informatization of society and reducing the role of direct annexations and other forms of direct aggression, the strengthening of economic, ideological forms of the struggle for domination, turning them into force, maintaining a large gap in the level of developed countries and third world countries as a source of cataclysms.
- Formation of new ideologies, search for forms for their implementation.
Without giving an exhaustive list of planetary scale factors, these examples emphasize their importance for the statehood of any type and form, the inevitability of their accounting in determining policies, methods and structures implementing it.
II. Internal statehood factors are determined by the terms that were discussed above. They are heterogeneous, and they can be grouped according to the system, taking into account the most important areas of civil society development: Economic, social, political, spiritual, etc. In the aspect of their connection with state powerful qualities, they are manifested primarily as organizational-structural, organizational and legal, regulatory activities of state bodies that implement certain methods of influence on the state and development of society. Depending on the degree of synchronization of the processes going in society and the activities of the state, its policies statehood may manifest itself as a mechanism that enhances stagnation, the crisis stabilizing the state of society creating conditions for its progressive development.
In the field of economy, in recent years, has received sufficient impulses to strengthen a multi-storey property system, the processes of formation of a new structure of the economy, all its elements: production, exchange, distribution, consumption.
The solution of modern problems of the economy, and first of all the restoration of production and the establishment of the reproduction cycle, the use of NTP capabilities in the conditions of multi-way economy and the diversity of ownership of property changes, changes the tasks and methods of state impact on economic processes. It should be noted that the economy itself does not represent the coordinated unified systemThe elements of which are in a state of dialectical confrontation, is not passive to the state mechanism and its possibilities to influence its own development. Separate elements of the economy, in particular, modern financial capital, are actively striving for the use of state levers in their own interests. Inevitably there are impulses of the seizure of power, including corrupt forces, which makes complications in the organization and activities of the state mechanism, which himself has many internal contradictions and problems. The topic of establishing the interaction of the economy and the state is repeated constantly. This is a process in need of continuous debugging.
Economic policy, structural policy in production (and this is now the main direction), the establishment of exchange, updating of production technologies, market is all the tasks of the state. The case is in methods of work and to the degree of incorporating state organizational and regulatory functions to these processes. The first place is the function of the state, weakly developed during the monopoly period state planning and command management methods. Scientific organizations of accounting, control, analysis of the state of the economy and economy in all their diversity and the creation of conditions for the development of all forms of ownership based on healthy competition, developing policies and mechanisms for impact on processes based on the knowledge of the situation, and not blind intuitive desire or abstract modeling desired, or writing and copying models that develop in other historical and social conditions. Changing goals and methods of state policy determines and change in the structure of the state apparatus and its activities.
The experience of interaction between state policy and the Russian economy in recent years has only confirmed that the economic reform cannot be carried out without the participation of the state and that during the economic reform of such a scale, as in Russia and other former republics of the USSR, the state itself changes. And it's not about the number of ministries, but within and the methods of impact on the processes in the economy. We need new regulatory, protective, law enforcement mechanisms for citizens, private, public (state), mixed legal entitiesoperating in the economy and forming its structure.
The state of human relations that are not limited to the sphere of economy The social structure of society does not less need state impact on the most important areas of life support people. Essentially, social problems are largely continuing economic and their consequence at the level of distribution and use of public goods. But it is here that such a parameter and the principle of the state, statehood, as its sociality: a measure of care for man, teams of people, their agglomerations, is being worked out.
In this area, there also arose many new problems requiring the attention of the state. Ensuring employment able-bodied population, termination of the lumenization, tax regulation of the process of property bundle of society into polar social groups, governmental support Health, education, culture, taking into account national, regional, historical conditions - a huge field of activity for the state.
At the same time, such objects as identity and regional structures are published in the first place, within which the conditions of life support are being implemented. Structural regional policy - economic, social, national, is a decisive condition for solving social problems. And these problems themselves form a rather complex system of factors that determine the objectives and methods of statehood in new conditions. It is noteworthy that in the speech of the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Russian Federation, the government's government policy on this issue was determined in the ESS of the Congress of People's Deputies.
Among the factors determining state activities require the accounting of the spiritual forces of society. A strip of deideologicalization, departing of other destructive impacts on social psychology and turn to a new wave of politicization through many parties made a lot of teams in the mood of society. The violation of the historically established forms of active participation and simply the relationship of people in the affairs of society, the cultivation of elite began in the formation of state structures, manipulation of publicity is fraught with the consequences of the new wave of alienation of citizens from the state.
The policy and activities of the state in the field of the development of the spiritual potential of society in the context of economic and social reforms should be considered not as attempts to totalitarian affects, but as a condition for the formation of such a parameter of civil society itself and its political system as democracy. The involvement in the decision of the affairs of society and the state, the dignity of a citizen, patriotism (the word that is trying to remove from the lexicon) - the personalities of the person, without which the development of modern civilization is impossible. The processes of integration in the field of science, culture, economics do not exclude these qualities, but create a guarantee of the moral and moral health of society, form the basis of its social security. The level of human humanity and as a result, the democracy of his state is checked not only in the process of elections or referendums, but constantly, in the daily participation and involvement of citizens to states, region, team, family and other forms of the hostel.
Through the structure of education management, culture, means of information, the creation of conditions for self-government in the production and primary regional structures, for the development of the family, the state of the state forms the spiritual and physical health of citizens and is intended to protect it.
The designated three most important areas of development of society: the economic, social and spiritual, are formed appropriate factories for the formation and development of statehood, define objective requirements for its content, methods and forms. Thus, statehood as a form of expression of organized powerful will people to create and ensure modern forms of dormitory and joint activities within certain borders of the territory, population, compliance with the sovereigntality of their own and other peoples, should be formed taking into account the factors that develop as within a certain civil society, So, taking into account external factors that are formed on the planetary scale of the Life of the Earth Civilization. Accounting for these factors should every time give a report on the question of which state should be today.
When searching for an answer to the last question: what state and statehood we expect both to them, the state, it is possible to form a certain section of a factor analysis: historicism in the development of state culture and society needs to be taken into account. This is an important group of factors in essence, forming one of the principles of the organization of statehood.
Historicism, i.e. Ensuring the continuity, continuity of the processes going in society accumulating certain traditions corresponding to the material and spiritual basics of certain regions, countries, is directly related to the form of the organization of statehood. Failure to comply with the principle of historicism and the desire of political groups, figures with a time to translate the country into other rails strengthen the separation of the state from civil society, make the state mechanism destructive, often destructive. Ignoring factors of historicism is one of the manifestations of political violence over the structures and processes of society. An example of this is a number of countries in Eastern Europe and individual republics of the USSR, which have become independent states. The desire of the shock method to jump into the level of developed countries or to ensure modern well-being of society by designing the state mechanism of the bourgeois republics without taking the lengthy period of a socialist organization, which has both positive and negative consequences, has not given notable shifts in solving the problem of establishing the consent of society and the state.
Dangerous in their consequences can be, for example, an attempt by political forces to impose organizational forms, alien to its historical experience. Traditions of the People's Representative Office in Russia for several centuries: first on the basis of the data, property price, and later - on the basis of a wide popular representation of interests through the advice of people's deputies and a deeply democratic electoral system (direct, direct, with the participation of the entire population election) - not may be lost during the modernization of statehood. The work and organization of councils can be improved, but any step to the side of the achieved level of the national representation will be a violation of the historically established traditions of democracy.
A real look at the course of history confirms that artificial delay, the development of the development of the new in the depths of the usual forms of the organization is also fraught with hazardous consequences. It is understood that the integrated assessment of the factors affecting the state of statehood as the form of the political organization of the Company, provides grounds for the conclusions about the change in the substance of the essence and appointment of the state in the XIX and XX centuries.
Modern states were formed, on the one hand, under the influence of the early stages of the development of capitalism and slogans of freedom, equality, fraternity. A variety of forms of democratic board were created, taking into account the historical conditions and traditions of Europe, the West, the East, based on the principles of state sovereignty. On the other hand, the state in the XX century. They were formed under the influence of the ideology of proletarian revolutions based on the slogans of "Proletaria of all countries, connect!", "Expropriation of Expropriators", to install the possibility of sending the state in the victory of socialism around the world. It should be noted that the installation of bourgeois-democratic revolutions and in these cases an embodiment was obtained.
The interpretation of political freedoms, recognized by the Constitutions of Socialist States, in some cases was wider than in the countries of the West and the East, but significantly restrained the lack of economic freedom, artificial inhibition of the human multipleness. Legal equality of citizens slowed down the underdevelopment of the rule of law and the lack of necessary mechanisms for its provision. The problem of "fraternity", by the way, weakly studied in the state-legal aspect, received the greatest development in the socialist system, was often realized to the detriment of the sovereignty of the state, and within the states to the detriment of the most developed part of the population. So, according to G.I. Litvinova, the outskirts of pre-revolutionary Russia developed during socialism largely due to the infringement of the interests of the population of Central Russia.
The formation of modern signs and the features of the state both in traditional democratic systems and within the socialist states occurred and occurs in the integration of the global system. Currently, the state construction is processes that deserve more researchers. As a result, conclusions can be obtained, allowing the signs and criteria for the modern democratic state. In any case, the organization and functioning of the state mechanism should be made democratism, sociality, humanity, legality that have a specific manifestation of historical conditions and traditions, integration processes in the system of world civilization. The study at the same time internal and external factors is, in our opinion, the condition of the most objective implementation of this work.
Problem Unity and integrity of statehood and the doctrine of the separation of the authorities
Until now, it was about external and internal factors that determine the need for statehood and establishing its content in modern conditions. However, there are also factors, intrasystems for the very state mechanism and the state apparatus that implement the tasks and functions of the state.
Unlike internal factors that determine the conditions for the interaction of civil society with the state as an organization of political and legal, these intrastable organizational factors determine the form of state organization, coherence of its parts and methods of activity. We are talking On the selection of the form of the state device, the implementation of the principle of separation of authorities in subsystems, the principles of the legal state in a certain state structure.
The problem of separation of the authorities is most acute for the formation of the Russian statehood. The solution to it in a certain way forms factors or a stabilizing or destructive nature for the very apparatus of the state, and, consequently, for the effectiveness of its role in external and internal functions.
The course of political reform in the Russian Federation just confirms a very large influence of the nonresistance to the problem of separation of state power on its traditional structures - legislative, executive, judicial to carry out economic and social reforms. The energy potential of energy goes to the confrontation of the executive and legislative branches of power, intra-organizational relations. The confrontation of the indicated branches of the horizontal power branches is increasing due to the unresolved problems of its separation by vertical.
It seems that the "statehood" phenomenon can act in the infrastructure of the social organization as a single political and legal mechanism. The state and properties of statehood can be fully implemented, provided that this is a single and holistic mechanism for organizing the solution of its own affairs (intra-organization) and the affairs of society, which forms the state. Consequently, the authority as the main sign of the state should be united and holistic. The separation of the authorities implies the implementation of this property of statehood by various methods and methods. That is why the principle of separation of authorities on the branches on the criteria for subject areas of state activities and according to the methods of implementing its tasks and functions.
The unity and integrity of statehood do not allow to raise the question of which branch of government is more important and more "powerful". None of them can exist without two other. In this sense, interest attempts to focus actuators at the level of government level and vice versa. The stabilizing effect of statehood, its constructive purpose in society can be achieved with a high degree of self-organization of the state of the state in all its structures and its interaction of these structures both horizontally and vertically.
It seems that the constitutional consolidation of the unity and integrity of statehood in the Russian Federation and the definiteness of its implementation for the structures of the legislative, executive, the judicial branches of the authorities in the understanding of their specific methods of activity and mutual linations will help significantly promote the process of reforming the political and state system.
It should be noted that the unforgettable system of power entails a violation of the unity of the state and legal system. There is so well familiar to everyone "war of laws", the confrontation of the law and other legislative acts, the mechanism of the rule of law and its execution weakened.
The confrontation of the authorities on the principle of "who is stronger", "who is more important" leads to the strengthening of corruption. The struggle for economic dominance in a multi-way system of the economy is inevitably transferred to the apparatus of state structures. Enhance its corruption.
The underdevelopment of the political structure of society in modern conditions creates difficulties in the legalization of one of the stereotypes in the theory of forms of the organization of power. The choice between the parliamentary or presidential republic is not completed, which is carried out mainly by the groupings of the authorities themselves against the background of the increasing political passivity of the population. These are the consequences of a prolonged period when the movement without a clearly decorated development goal led to a destructive political and economic situation.
Without the constitutional design of the institutions of statehood and consistent compliance with the Basic Law in the relations of all branches, it is difficult to submit a way out of the situation. It is in the process of developing a draft constitution and should be aware of the importance of new conditions and factors forming modern statehood: its goals, content, mechanisms, structures, methods and forms of their activities.
Excluding new circumstances and trends in world integration, the problem of the form of the state device cannot be solved. The Federal Agreement of the Russian Federation, unconditionally, was a stabilizing step in the design of the device of the Russian state of the early 1990s. However, uncertainty has been preserved in the legal status of the subjects of the Federation. Fundamental decisions are needed regarding the statehood of historically emerging national and territorial regional units forming the Russian state space and its population. It seems that the problem of equalizing the legal status of republics, edges and regions is one of the most urgent issues on which the country's regional development depends. Territorial administrative units could be enlarged taking into account the natural conditions and economic relations, ethnic proximity to the population and legalized as a republic on a territorial basis. This would make it possible to equalize their status with the status of the national republics of the country. The federation in this case would acquire a one-dimensional nature, and the current situation in which the Russian population constituting the majority does not have its state design, could be eliminated. This is important and in terms of solving the problems of the legal state.
Analysis of the state of the system of Russian legislation conducted by S.V. Lenina, only confirms that there are still strong trends towards the mixed unitary-federal form of the board. The streamlining of the Federation's problems will create conditions for guarantees of the rights of citizens, the formation of a social management mechanism.
In conclusion, we note that the factors affecting the formation and state of statehood, the fields of their occurrence and structuring are rates. The problem of factors and conditions for the formation and development of statehood at this stage is one of the conditions for the scientific understanding of the modern state, its nature, the roles, tasks and functions, the formation and development of statehood of countries, which today are classified as the category of post-socialist, Russian Federation and other states that have arisen on Territory of the former Soviet Union.
IN this article Indicated factories forming internal and external system-forming signs of modern statehood of the Russian Federation. The author will consider his task performed if this publication will attract the attention of the scientific community to three problems: 1) the need to deeper identification and research of new starting conditions for the formation of statehood in Russia and in post-socialist countries; 2) analysis and assessment of the influence of internal and external factors on the statehood of individual countries, including in Russia; 3) Theoretical studies of nature and trends in the development of the modern state in terms of integration, information and economic rapprochement of states regardless of their political form and device.
The development of the theory of the modern state, taking into account the state of the world community and its individual regions, the clarification of the principles of statehood, taking into account the development of the global culture of the organization of social development and understanding the importance of the conservation of earthly civilization, is the actual task of the state.
Supporters of the first of them, Holding concepts odnolynosis of world historyIt is believed that all countries and peoples, including Russia and the Russian nation, are among their evolution among the same, common for all stages, move one by one, common to all paths. Those or other features of Russian history are interpreted by representatives of this school as manifestations of the backwardness of Russia and Russians. This point of view is characteristic primarily for historical journalism of Western, including dogmatized-Marxist, directions.
Historians professionalsemanating from the same methodological parcel, as a rule, avoid used in relation to, the history of Russia, the concept of "backwardness", preferring another term - "Delay" of the movement of Russian history; Accordingly, the research center is transferred to the identification of the reasons that slowed down the course of the historical evolution of Russia.
Supporters of the second approach The study of Russian history proceed from concepts of multi-zeal historical Development . They believe that the history of mankind consists of the stories of a number of original civilizations, each of which is mainly developing (developed) any one (or specific combination of several) to the side of human nature, evolving on its own path; One of these civilizations is Russian (Slavic) civilization.
In domestic and foreign historiography, three main factors determined by the features (backwardness, delay, originality, originality) of Russian history are distinguished:
1 ) climatic climatic;
2 ) geopolitical;
3 ) confessional (religious);
Natural and climatic factor:
Effect of natural climatic factor On the specifics of Russian history, almost all researchers of the uniqueness of the Russian historical process were noted. Last time stopped on this problem L.V. MilovWhen it was relied, perhaps, perhaps on the most solid actual base. In his opinion, in Central Russia, which made the historical core of the Russian state (after his movement from Kiev to the Northeast Rus), "With all the fluctuations in the climate, the cycle of agricultural work - only 125-130 business days (from about the middle of April to the middle September by old style). For at least 400 years, the Russian peasant was in a situation where highness soils demanded careful treatment, and he simply lacked her time on her, as well as on the billet for livestock ...
If the Catholicism is characterized by external unity ("Power, domination, discipline"), then for Orthodoxy - rather the unity of the internal: the cobility understood as the involvement of the Orthodox to the general absolute. Orthodoxy does not seek direct secular power, concentrating his attention to the souls of people. Different in the West and East way of theological thinking. "For, striving for the truth of aging, the eastern thinkers take care primarily about the correctness of the inner state of the thinking spirit; Western - more about the external connection of concepts. Eastern to achieve the completeness of truth is looking for internal integrity of the mind: so to speak, the middleness of mental forces, where all the individual activities of the Spirit merge into one living and higher unity. Western, on the contrary, believe that the achievement of complete truth is possible for the divided forces of the mind ... they understand the moral sense; Another - elegant; useful - again a special meaning; True, they understand the abstract mind, and no ability knows what is different, as long as its action will make it. "
As a result of the fact that Russia and the West received Christianity Through different intermediaries, the features of Christian education have drastically differed: "The theology in the West took the nature of the dissatisfaction - in the Orthodox world, it retained the internal integrity of the spirit; There is a splitness of the forces of the mind - here the desire for their lively aggregate there is the movement of the mind to the truth through the logical clutch of concepts - here the desire for it by means of the internal elevation of self-consciousness to the heart integrity and the mid-welfare of the mind; there is a search for outdoor, dead unity - here is the desire for internal living; There, the church was mixed with the state, connecting the spiritual power with light and merging church and worldly importance in one mixed character, - in Russia it remained not mixed with worldly objectives and the device; There scholastic and legal universities - in the ancient Russia, prayer monasteries, focusing in themselves higher knowledge; There's reasonable and school study of higher truths - here is the desire for their living and solid knowledge ... In a word, there is a split spirit, splitting of thoughts, split sciences, split state, split society, split family rights and duties, split moral and heartcort, split the entire totality and all certain types of human, public and private; In Russia, opposite the preferential desire to the integrity of the existence of internal and external, public and private, speculative and everyday, artificial and moral ... Split and integrity, rationality and reasonability will be the last expression of Western European and Old Russian education. "
Without interfering directly into the affairs of secular power, Orthodoxy nevertheless had a decisive influence on the Russian political tradition. Investigated this question I.N. Iona notes that one "from the central concepts of the state ideology of Byzantium was the concept of Taxis, the essence of which was ... in the convergence, combination of earthly and heavenly orders. By connecting force was the power of the emperor, the normal functioning of which largely removed the voltage (the contradiction between the existing and due, between the earth and heavenly order) ... Thus, in Orthodoxy, the power of the "real", the Orthodox king became the guarantor of the possibility of the future "salvation" after death. .. If in the European city in the Protestant Review Environment pushed a person to active economic activity (her success helped him to be convinced of his "chosenness", in the coming individual "salvation"), then in the Russian city, it was not an economic path in the Russian city " Salvation ", with a strong collective component.
From here, on the one hand, the economic activity of Europeans and the creation of civil society as a mechanism for the approval of their interests, as a tool for the struggle for economic success, and on the other, the search for the "real" king in Russia ... gradual secularization ... Reviews led to the fact that in the West, Especially in the United States, the highest criterion for evaluating the human activity, if you please, the realization of the meaning of life, the market assessments, wealth, while we have a convergence of things and due to the best future in the form of a collective movement for the best future, in the ideas of social justice ... The force connecting the existence and due ... In the USSR, the charismatic power, the state remained in the USSR.
Why is Russia's history so different from other countries?
Today, there are many works devoted to Russia, as a special civilization, often mentioned "the special way of development" of our country, but it is rarely considered the entire complex of factors that have influenced Russia as different from the West and the East of Civilization.
If earlier the peculiarities of Russia's development were explained by the existing ideology (although they contradicted some of the main provisions of Marxism), now there is no explanation at all. And then in our story a lot is difficult to explain: why, for example, we had a socialist revolution that happened (in other countries, such revolutions occurred with our support) why the history of our country is so different from the global development path. In Russian history, much remains incomprehensible, if not to take into account the entire set of natural, geographical, geopolitical and a number of other factors that have affected our history, culture, economy. These factors were ignored in judgments and in the USSR, explaining the unique path of state development by ideological reasons.
The question of which depends the development of the state? What factors affect it?
All people are the same, one head, two hands, two legs, states today with similar political elites similar to socio-economic systems. Why are some world leaders, and others are constantly lagging behind in development?What factors affect the development of the state, his welfare?
What Russia is not like other countries? Why, enhanced as damned, do not create a normal life? Perhaps, in addition to Russia, there is no other country in the world concerned about such issues. Only we have opinions about our history, the people and the authorities are not just different, and often the opposite. Only we have disputes: we are East or West? We are North.
Russian Historian V. O. Klyuchevsky in the "Russian History" wrote that before learn the history of any country, it is necessary to find out where it is located, which natural conditions have, which climate in this area. Before talking about the "special way of development" of Russia, it is necessary to answer the question of which there were natural-geographical, historical, socio-economic conditions and how they influenced the development of the country.
The most populated areas of the planet, where 70% of the land lives, occupy only 7% sushi. But these are the graceful places! And our Russia, where only 2.5% of the world's population lives, stretched at 12% sushi! But the whole of our huge country is located around the pole of the northern hemisphere cold.
What can the climate in economically affect?
Labor productivity in agriculture, yields in comparison with the West (2-3 K 1 we, 6-8 - in the West). But it was the village then indicated the development of the country. What could we accumulate with such a yield? The basis of welfare at the initial stage of the country's development was determined by the income from agriculture. In Russia, due to the harsh climate there were very small yields. Yes, and any products produced in Russia because of this factor was more expensive than in Europe, with which we were forced to compete to preserve independence.
We live in the coldest country of the world, where no one else could survive. Of the two hundred countries of the world, only Mongolia can be compared with us. In Western Europe, cooling up to - 10-15 degrees causes complete disorganization of economic life (no transport, full collapse of the economy, frost and snowfall in Europe). We live in such conditions all the time.
Our people are no worse and no better than any other. Why we were born there, where to live very hard, and in some places it is impossible. For half of our territory (north of the line Petersburg - Vyatka - Khanty-Mansiysk - Magadan) is not about any agriculture, except for reindeer herding and small gardens. In our middle lane, agricultural works go from May to October, and, for example, in France - in fact all year round. The vintage among the Russians was on the non-black earth soil Sam-2 or Sam-3, and in Western Europe in the XVIII century - Sam-12.
Therefore, the French peasant could afford to be an alien to the farmer, and lived well, and the Russian impeding ages were boured into the community, for only mutual assistance in labor allowed to somehow get out, and the old men just survived that with the help of "Oblism." This is an essential factor for the formation of culture and the nature of the nation. In Russia, it was impossible to live alone because of harsh climatic conditions. One family was physically unable to survive (build a house, and not a tent in the summer, to choke the field in a short summer, scratch the field, assemble a crop, etc.). This is not Europe with its warm climate (Golf Stream).
The harsh climate has affected the formation of a special type of mentality of the population. The generality that has adapted to existence in our country is called Russians (it does not accidentally answer the question - what?). These are those who have adapted to life under the existing conditions of Russia. Alone in such conditions it was impossible to live. Hence a much stronger community than in the west, collectivism instead of individualism, cooperation and mutual assistance instead of competition and rivalry. All this formed a special type of mentality of the Russian people, the priority of community values, collectivism, the role of the state in ensuring the survival of the population in severe conditions.
First: climatic factor (low temperatures affecting the yield and cost of products)But later, there was no easier with the development of the industry. All produced products up to 20-30% are energy spent on its production. Our energy costs are incomparable with the West. Mass of other consequences of a cold climate: a high construction price (more expensive than in any other country) - the foundation depth should be below the freezing border (in Iceland, Malaysia, China is enough to use the platform and install a canopy, walls only from wind, two-story buildings in Germany, Generally without foundation). Even in the southwestern border, the depth of frozen 110 cm is, closer to the Volga region - already 170, about the Urals and Siberia can not be mentioned. The cost of the foundation even under the usual country house - 25% of the total value of its construction. There is no current expenses in the West.
Communication in the ground, and not as in Europe on top.Infrastructure in Russia is an exorbitant road, in the West there is no CHP system, steam heating (except Denmark), due to the fact that in due time such systems were not built (the land is private, so it is very expensive to lay the communications.
Because of the climate, the high cost of resources(Mining infrastructure, still the remnants of the Soviet, state, privately on building: expensive, for example, kovykta). We have a $ 25-30 dollars for the extraction of barrel and 3-4 of them, you can not talk about other resources at all. On the north the gold is unprofitable. Reserves are constantly reduced. On the moon, for example, there are also many resources, but we do not produce them. Our resources are similar to the lunar. It is much more profitable to extract oil in the Persian Gulf, and not in Tyumen, diamonds - in Angola, and not in Yakutia, bauxites in Tunisia, and not in Karelia, etc.
The harsh climate and a huge territory contributed to the fact that the costs of production are higher than in other countries. For the functioning of the economy in such adverse conditions, it was required state regulation Conditions for use and movement of capital. With the open borders and united world prices, the capital sought to go there, where the cost of production is lower. To save from the ruin of the domestic non-competitive due to climate and farming distances, protectedness was needed, the protection of the domestic market from the world. It is not by chance that the most serious "breakthroughs" in the history of our country, periods of its accelerated development are associated with the "closure" of Russia from the global market. The most vividly, such a tendency is manifested during the reign of Peter 1 and the years of the Stalinist Board, when the country covered its borders from the importation of cheap goods produced in Russia, but with a higher cost, by introducing enormous import duties under Peter or with the help of a state monopoly on Foreign trade during the years of Soviet power.
It turns out that the production of any product on our territory is associated with high costs, higher than in any other country of the world (harsh climate, distance, low productivity of C / X, frost). Production in Russia, even simple accommodation is too expensive, and where to take resources for development, if everything is more expensive?
The second factor: the geographical position of Russia.Due to the high cost of resource production, their constant lack and continuous expansion of the territory in pursuit of resources. Increase the cost of protection of borders, army. Geographical position (expensive transport, long distances, low population density). At our huge distances, the cost of transporting goods may be more expensive than the goods itself, the goods are transported by one of the most expensive types of transport - pipeline, car, railway, air. The cheapest sea and river transport in the West, all the developed countries Have access to the sea (we have only seasonal, in summer). An example is the cheapness of sea transport - talling on aluminum plants, bauxites bring from Tunisia, and not from the Kola Peninsula.
What are the main capital? Remember " star Wars" Even in fiction, Americans show the main cause of conflict - trade, trading paths. It is trade that brings the greatest profit. But here Russia is limited in the possibilities: one port in the Baltic, on the Black Sea, the Bosphorus and Dardanelles under the control of Turkey. And how could we trade? Right raw materials. But his prey in Russia costs more expensive than else. Boxites are easier to produce in Tunisia, oil in the Persian Gulf, diamonds - in Angola, etc.
Another essential factor was that with the abundance of resources in Russia, their shortage has always been. Prey did it expensive.Russia in pursuit of resources mastered new and new lands, therefore the economy developed on an extensive path. If the main export product is energy, then earlier this function was performed by the fur (soft currency). In Europe, with its overcrowding, in pursuit of profit quickly "knocked out" the fur beast. And behind the eastern borders of Russia, there were huge arrays of undeveloped lands, where it was possible to produce the gun, which was one of the main goods of Russian exports. But it was difficult to take it abroad and it was difficult to sell, the way out to the sea was breaking only by Peter 1 at the beginning of the 18th century (and otherwise how to sell for a normal price?). It is these circumstances, as well as the need for direct access to trade routes, influenced the formation of the huge territory of our country. But we settled spaces where no one lived, only rare settlements of hunters. This was then open resource reserves. Then the territory was not needed anyone.
The size of the territory (protection of borders, army). Surroundings, length of borders. No way out to trade routes directly.
Third factor. The geopolitical position (the location between Europe and Asia caused the inevitability of permanent military attacks from the east and the need to form a state of military type, the lack of access to trade routes directly).
Russia appeared between Europe and Asia, in the territory, through which the waves of the "resettlement of peoples" rolled out, one of which led to the collapse of the Great Roman Empire, its conquest of the Huns. Therefore, Russia was forced to be forced primarily as a military state. During the next wave of "resettlement of peoples" (combating Mongols) in the XIII-XV centuries. To preserve Russia, consolidating the population was required, unconditional subordination to its authorities to exemplate from the innocents. And the main political agent became the state. In such conditions, rigid uniqueness and discipline, possibilities for the formation of democracy are limited. All resources were sent to the country survival, the content of the army. The unfavorable natural conditions led to the poor of the surplus product, but a significant part and these income frequent aggression forced to spend on defense. There was a special type of power, which were alien to the principles of democracy. These factors influenced the folding of a special type of management and political culture of the population.
"It is difficult to get rich in the territory, one half of which is in the zone of permafrost, the other - in the external invasion band outside" (Solonevich).
Fourth factor. State, not a private economy.
The lack of capital led to in Russia, most of the population was poor, so there was a narrow domestic market(A certain on a massive scale to buy produced goods. The peasants were mostly on self-sufficiency, citizens - little, and money from the population, too (we did not have huge daothes from the colonies that were in the West. It was the colony that the West industrialization was provided).
In order to develop and receive sufficient income, the capital was forced to navigate the state order. This is primarily an army (weapons, supply, etc.). The bourgeoisie, artificially and accelerated by the authorities could not defend his rights to her, realizing that the well-being depends on the state (who would bite the hand that feeds you?). Therefore, in Russia, the bourgeoisie in the full sense of the word has not formed, all of it dependent on power (compare with today's day). What entrepreneurs are the most successful? Those associated with the authorities. And civil society in the West began with the bourgeoisie, which defended its interests before the state. Subsequently, all the wider segments of the population were involved in this movement until almost all citizens were covered. In Russia, this was impossible.
It was significantly affected by the development of Russia and the fact that we have never had a full-fledged private property before the beginning of the twentieth century. In the West, the appearance of wealth was associated with the Earth. Revenues received from sales of agriculture products served as a source of accumulation. In Russia, the Earth was not capital. Small yield in connection with the cold climate made the land unfavorable for investments. And the presence of a huge array of undeveloped lands made it possible to master the virgin sections, the use of them to exhaustion, and then the development of new territories. It happened extensive, not intensive development. There was no need for private ownership of land. If in the West, the appearance of serfdom was due to the receipt of profit from the ownership of land and the accumulation of capital, then in Russia - in the first place, with the content of people servants. In the West, any feudal could exist separately from the state. Owing property, land and people, he was largely independent of the actions of power. In Russia, until the adoption by Peter III in 1762, the manifesto "on the liberty of the noble", every nobleman was obliged to serve as a state, regardless of how rich he was. Their welfare is entirely dependent on the location of power. Is it really very similar to today?
Most of the economy in Russia belonged to the state or was created with it. Why? For private owners there were no funds to create industry, only light, where fast return. Demanding considerable money in the heavy industry was considered inappropriate (they would simply be broken). And the algorithm for the formation of the industry was "inverted" opposite to Western. Initially, the state was created by the state, then pulled lightly. Moreover, it was primarily a military industry, which pulled the rest. All this happened not because of our hunting for dictatorship or some personal features, but due to objective circumstances. In the same West, huge revenues from the colonies allowed to go through this way with much less loss. But in this case, tens of millions were killed during the formation of capitalism (which even closely was unparalleled with Russia in the 20th century, when we went the same way).
Fifth factor. By the adoption of Russia from Europe a branch of Christianity (Orthodoxy), which helped the formation of almost separate civilization.
What is the main in the West? This is the existence of a civilization based on profits and calculation. An example, oddly enough, showed religion. It is thanks to Catholicism and Protestantism a special ideology arose. Chosen's dogma by God instilled special ethics, thanks to which, in order to succeed, a person used all possible funds to get to the top. And moral values \u200b\u200bin this case were understood as secondary. After all, if a person succeeds, it was the sign of his chosen by God. Chosenness, distrust and contempt for weak, indulgence, Protestant ethics. All this helped to quickly develop a personal desire for wealth and success. In Russia, the wealth is the gift of God, they need to share, this is the gift of God, so that you will help the neighbor, in the West - wealth is a sign of chosenness.
The theory of "Russian hills".
As we have seen, in the course of natural development, Russia is doomed to a permanent increasing lag behind the West, due to the more severe conditions (geographical, climatic, social, economic) existence. But why then Russia not only has not yet fallen behind and irrevocably, but sometimes it is time to be ahead (space, military-industrial complex, science, etc.).
Under such conditions, Russia managed to keep up much from the West much, and sometimes to put in a closer with him (technical, scientific, production sphere) Although with a lower level of life of the population. For example, who defeats in a military collision? As a rule, the state where the economy is stronger.
Russia beats in the 17-18th centuries to Sweden, before which all Europe trembles, Turkey from the invasion of which suffers the same West, in the 19th century - Napoleon, who conquered Europe, in the 20th century - fascist Germany, which the same highly developed Europe was subsidered under him. Why is this happening?
The impact of such a path of Russia's development in its history.
Our climate was like that for thousands of years. The profitability of our production due to the geographical factors is lower than in the West, it means very little on development, and before the 20th century almost nothing remained, because it all accede or spent for simple survival. The resource that we could accumulate for these millennia is significantly less than that of the Western countries. By virtue of objective reasons, we have long had to lag foresometerily from them in all articles.
When Russia is developing calmly, it naturally lags behind other countries. There are applicants for its territory, wealth, Russia is tested. The answer to this is a mobilization jerk, with a huge voltage of strength, a complete refusal from even the necessary, due to numerous human victims. Russia pulls up the army, equipment, military production, which pulls the civil economy (metal for technology, forest for fleet, cloth for form, etc.) in the history of Russia, three such jerk can be distinguished, they are called rulers, but in fact The focus was asked by their predecessors: Ivan Grozny, Peter 1, Stalin. Smaller, you can count more, but the largest - three (small: after Mongol-Tatars in the 15th century, Napoleon, at the beginning of the 19th century, the Crimean War - in the middle of the 19th century. And so on.).
Chronic resource deficit affected the development of the economy, science, education and culture (funds needed to develop, and there are very few of them), condemned the country to the backlog from Europe. But it was with the European countries that we were forced to compete in order not to become their victim. The combination of adverse demographic and natural and climatic conditions, permanent exterior threat With a deficiency of development resources (time, finance), caused a contradiction between the objectives of the state (the conditions of survival) and the possibilities of the population to solve them. The method of resolution of this contradiction has become a mobilization scheme for the use of resources, which has become the basis for the formation of a mobilization type of development. It was the type of development that was a key factor that determined the specifics of the organization of the authorities and the political organization of the Company as a whole.
The "socialist path of development" was also associated with these features, which still a significant number of historians associate with the Marxist ideology and the activities of the Bolsheviks. But the ideology in the "Soviet project" was only a tool for building a model of the economy corresponding to the above factors. If at the beginning of the leaders of the Bolsheviks used Marxism to substantiate their arrival to power, then a little left from him. Instead of common property - the state, instead of the global revolution - the construction of socialism in one country, instead of internationalism - national interests, etc. Since the second half of the 1920s. Stalin has no longer from ideology, but from the practical feasibility of its actions to strengthen statehood, building a self-sufficient economy. The reason for this is in incompatibility of the open global economy of the national market with the condition for the preservation of the integrity and development of Russia. For the rapid development of the country, a state monopoly on foreign trade, restrictions on private ownership, nationalization, etc. Initially, these were forced actions (world economic blockade), but then already consciously "closed" the country from the global market.
Moreover, in the history of Russia, the XIX-early XX centuries. There was a practice of "openness" of the country that brought huge losses (introduction of Witte "Golden Ruble"). With the "freedom of trade", the capital "fled" from Russia. Its economy turned out to be destroyed, and the investment did not come to the country (not the prarama looks like today?). With costs in Russia large than its investors did not invest in the development of our production. That is why at the beginning of the 20th century, 3 crises were held in Russia, which led to three revolutions and ended in a civil war. Therefore, the Soviet project, implemented by Stalin, proceeded from the need to maintain the state monopoly of foreign trade introduced by the Bolsheviks, "close" the country for the export of capital and thereby ensure economic development.
By the mid-30s. The basics of society were created, the world of unknown. A number of researchers (A. Zinoviev, S. Kara-Murza, Panarin et al.) Indicates that not only ordinary citizens, but also the highest leadership, did not realize the deep essence created in the USSR of the economic and political system.
If in the countries of the West, production has evolved for maximum profits, then in Russia, where the surplus product was scarce, there was a survival task in the foreground. In addition, the USSR has long been in the position of foreign policy isolation. The need for fast industrialization and re-equipment led to the emergence of our mobilization economy. The economy in such conditions could not be constructed, based on the desire to make a profit. The Soviet economic system conceived as a single national economic body. Property for the means of production was public. Each Soviet citizen received certain benefits for him who belong to him (amented rent, free education, health care, etc.). Since the price systems in the USSR and in the West countries were fundamentally different, the Soviet economy could normally function only in conditions of isolation from the external market (otherwise everything is worth it was cheaper, they would simply be taken out).
But production in the USSR was effective if the efficiency is not profitability, but the cost ratio and result. Even in agriculture, which was considered the most backward in soviet economy, with the number of tractors per 1 thousand hectares of Pashnya, 10 times less than that of the Western farmers, the cost of grain tons was 3-4 times lower. According to differently than in the West, not only effectiveness, but also profitability of production. In the conditions of the mobilization economy, they sought not to narrow-economic efficiency, but to survival (autotoprom - tanks, mass production). Within the framework of such a model, the industrialization was held in a short time, ensured the victory in the war, the destroyed economy was restored, the US nuclear monopoly was eliminated, the first to have a way out. But for a peaceful life, for the existence in HTR conditions, such a model was not effective enough, modernization was required, but there were no worthy leaders nor the strength interested in it.
During the years of Soviet power, an infrastructure was created, providing the survival of the population in harsh climatic conditions. It was created by the state and the main goal of ensuring the population by the population, without which the survival (heat, electricity) is impossible. This system was designed and built in Soviet times, in relation to the harsh conditions of Russia and the cultural standards developed in it for the millennium as a system of general (even community) use. In the USSR, the housing and utilities content was the case of the state - the same as the content of the army, the police, etc. The state financed housing and communal services as a whole as a large technical system that determines the viability of the country. After the 1990s. A significant part of it was passed into private hands. But it was designed to ensure the survival of the population, and not to extract profits. To preserve and maintain infrastructure, the state has invested huge funds. But a private law, not interested in the content of unprofitable structures, began to raise prices for services and collect a fee from the population, and to ensure profit, did not invest in maintaining the system in good condition. The state also reduced financing and the system began to collapse, as evidenced by frequent accidents of life support systems. Not aware of the essence of the existence of a similar system, the authorities tried to reform it in the Western Type. But in the West, due to other conditions such systems simply did not exist. As a result, the old turned out to be destroyed, and the new was not created.
The same conclusions are valid and in relation to the entire complex of factors that influenced Russia as special civilization, with a specific economy, policies, infrastructure, mentality of the population. And now there are precisely historical studies of the influence of the complex of the above-described factors on the formation of Russian civilization. Only understood and evaluating their importance for the existence and development of the state, it is possible to transform. Their ignoring has already led the country to the loss of their identity, to the destruction of fundamental principles, which remained a single and strong state for a long time (the Russian Empire and the USSR). Instead of the Soviet Principles of Life Deposits, new ideological, cultural, economic foundations that would help the formation of new Russian statehood would explain the features of our history affecting the folding national Economy and ensuring the development of Russia.
The following factors affect the development of statehood in Russia:
- a) peasant question, i.e. The question of how to better join the peasant with the Earth and consolidate the most profitable for the peasant and society the method of business;
- b) the national question, which was always important for the development of Russian statehood, since the population of Russia is multinational;
- c) geopolitical issue, i.e. The implementation of the territorial interests of Russia and the influence of the country's geographical position on state organization societies. The geopolitical position of Russia affects the ethnocultural sections of the population, their life, traditions, consciousness, etc. And this, in turn, directly affects the organization of the country's state life. The conquests that Russia led in the past, attaching new territory to themselves, also influenced the organization of political power: the state should have always been ready to protect the peoples from the possible revenge.
Geopolitical interests are present from almost all nations, including in the modern period;
d) production and consumption of alcohol
Dry Law with V.I. Lenin; Vodka monopoly with I.V. Stalina introduced in 1924; Attempts by N.S. Khrushchev limit the production and consumption of alcohol and, on the contrary, the increase in its sale is three times at L.I. Brezhnev; Attempts to solve the problem by cutting vineyards at M.S. Gorbachev; Introduction Again the state monopoly on the production and sale of alcohol - all these were ways to solve an alcohol question in Russia.
The problem of the influence of this factor on the development of statehood is controversial, although it has a social importance;
e) upgrade, i.e. Changing the quality of life. Currently, modernization is understood as tightening Russian society in individual areas to the level of world standards, including the protection of human rights.
Scientists exploring the problems of Russian statehood unanimously note its specificity compared with Western states, emphasize its special state-legal spirit. For example, in philosophical and sociological literature they call four main features inherent in Russian statehood:
- 1) Orthodoxy as a form of collective consciousness;
- 2) autocracy, i.e. strong state and centralization of state power;
- 3) Community. In Russia, longer than in other countries, a community has persisted as a convenient form of the vital activity of peasants. And this household side of the life of the Russian peasantry, which constituted the majority of the population of the country, superimposed the imprint on the state organization;
- 4) Colonization, i.e. Transferring traditional forms of organization to new territories.
All scientists, emphasizing Russian specifics, are called the special mentality of the peoples of Russia, manifested in the originality of the economic defendant, political and legal life, spirituality and psychological peculiarities of the perception of the world.
Introduction ....................................................................................... 3.
1. Geographically - the geographical space of Russia ............ 5
1.1. Russian state .................................... ... ...... .7
2. Naturally - climate factor .................................... ... ... .8
2.1. Climatic conditions ............................................................ 8
2.2. The effect of climate on social and economic development ...... 10
3. The role of Christianity ......................................................... ... 14
4. Factor of external threat ................................................. .... ... 21
Conclusion .............................................................................. .... 26
List of used literature ........................................ ... .... ... 27
Introduction
The fate of any country is determined by many factors: the size of the territory and the location, the presence of exits to the seas and oceans, shipping rivers, minerals, climate that has a significant impact on the economy, population, etc. Geographical features The terrain, as a rule, determine the place of occurrence of cities, villages and enterprises, the choice of trade routes, population density. The geographical location of the state, his proximity or remoteness from the world's centers of strength and foci of conflicts affects its development.
The geographical factor has a direct impact on state construction (the form of government, the political regime, the main parameters of internal and foreign policy), forms the nature of the population, the methods of its self-organization, culture and life.
Science, which studies the viability of the state, conducted by the internal and foreign policy, depending on its geographical position, is called geopolitics.
The degree of geopolitics considers the Swedish researcher R. Chelylen (1846-1922). He characterized geopolitics as "science, which considers the state as a geographical organism or a phenomenon in space." Great contribution to the development of geopolitics was made by American, English, German scientists and politicians M. Makinder, A. Mezhhen, N. Spaikmen, K. Househofer, and others. They believed that the territorial characteristics of the state determine its political and historical fate. This is what the definition of this science gives a modern English researcher J. Parker: "Geopolitics is engaged in the study of states as a spatial phenomenon and aims to comprehend and understand their relics, as well as the nature of their interaction with each other. For scientists - geopolitics, power is firmly rooted in the nature of the earth itself. Just as in Greek mythology, Giant Antei, born goddess of land of gay and the god of the sea Poseidon, gets strength, touching the earth's surface, on which he stands and the power of the state is rooted in the territory it takes.
Climate, vegetation, soil, geology and distribution of the land massive are noticeably different in various parts of the planet. It is the variety of these characteristics that turns its surface into something more than just a scene on which the drama of human history unfolds. "
The purpose of my test work to try to comprehensively highlight the problem - the geopolitical factors of the formation and development of Russian statehood.
1. Geographically - the geographical space of Russia
It seems to me that four important factors were the greatest impact on the history and development of Russian statehood: the territorial-geographical space of Russia, the natural and climatic factor, the adoption of Christianity and external security.
The first and unique feature of our state is his huge territory that occupied in the XX century. One sixth of the whole earthly sushi. Historical Pranodina, the place of development of Slavs was the Eastern - European Plain.
The foci of civilization of the Eastern Slavs have a pronounced nature. CM. Solovyov highlighted the four main river systems of the Russian Earth: "Novgorod (Volkhov-Upper Dnipro); Krivska or Polotsk (Western Dvina); Kiev (Dnipro); Rostov (top). The rivers were places of settlement, cormalists, transportationers. Spindlers increased soil fertility, contributed to the development of shipping and trade. "
"The territory on which the Russian centralized state formed was formed, and then the Russian Empire was preferably in the zone of the solid, the greatest forests in the world, wetlands, with relatively small thermal resources, podzolic and ferrous-podzolic soils. In the north, along the entire Arctic Ocean, Tundra stretched, and south of the forest-steppe, turning into huge steppe spaces. "
Expansion 40 times the territory of the Russian state in the XVI-XIX centuries. The country landscape made more diverse, which has favorably affected the processes of ethnogenesis of the Russian super ethnic. To the Forest Eastern European Plain in the south and south-east, mountains and steppes were adjacent; In Eastern Siberia and the Far East, the plains crossed or bored by mountain ranges and plateaus.
The success of the conquest of Siberia, according to L.N. Gumileva, "was provided not only by the passionality of Ermak, Dezhneva, Khabarova, etc., but also the fact that Russian Cossacks did not go beyond the usual landscape." Accession to the Russian state of steppe districts made it possible to collect a higher harvest of cereals and vegetables, breed herd of horses, octara sheep. Eurasians considered a steppe with a skeleton of Russia.
Inexplicable expanses of Russia were "blessing and curse." They determined the extensive nature of the development of its economy, up to the end of the 20th century. The hugeness of the territory, the originality of nature and the landscape they had an impact on the formation of a Russian national nature: love for wide expanses, freedom, liberty. The breadth of Russian land and wide Russian souls crushed Russian energy, opening the possibility of movement towards the extensiveness. This breadth did not require intensive energy and intensive culture.
The opportunity to find a safe refuge in the forests, mountains, the steppes led to the part of the population a tendency to vagrancy, an adventurism, the psychology "Knights of good luck", escape from owners, family, permanent labor, affection, etc. Love for freedom and liberty often accepted the forms of anarchy, rebellion, "meaningless and merciless" (A.S. Pushkin).
1.1.Rans of the Russian state
The land borders of the Russian state were formed over the centuries, many of them were permanent, enshrined international treaties, etc. Many peoples entered into Russia did not have statehood, the boundaries of their habitat were not specified and legally not accounted for. And in the Tsarist Russia, and the borders of the provinces, the republics were arbitrarily established in the USSR.
Russia had the greatest length of land borders (about 20 thousand km). In the West to 1918, she bordered with the Romano-German world. After 1918. Between him and Russia (USSR), a belt of buffer states that did not have a strong statehood, a developed economy and democracy, which became the islet of the struggle for the influence of Western and Central Europe and Russia. Both sides (Russia and the West) were hostile to expansion each other in Eastern Europe.
In the south-west and south of Russia, over the two centuries strengthened its borders in the fight against Turkey and Persia. In Central Asia, the safety of the borders threatened England, striving to seize Afghanistan and part of Central Asia. The eastern borders of Russia, without having threats from China, were open for a long time.
Sea borders of Russia are held mainly in the Arctic Ocean. To Peter the Great Russian state was cut off from its natural gates in the Baltic and Black Seas. In the XVIII century I broke these obstacles and gave Russia the keys to her own home. However, these were the inner seas, and Russia during the XIX and early XX centuries. It sought free passage through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles strait. But after the conquest of the Baltic and Black Seas, Russia did not become a real sea power, "said Chellen. Russia took possession only by individual outlets in the semi-closed seas.
2. Naturally - climatic factor
2.1. Climatic conditions
For most of the territory of Russia, nature, by definition of S.M. Solovyov is a stepmother. Long winter, short summer, cold or hot steppe winds, a large temperature difference, an abundance of moisture in some lack of it in other areas, soil poverty - all this has had a great influence on the economic, socio-cultural development of peoples inhabiting this territory. The cycle of agricultural work on most of the country is 125-130 business days, which is almost 2 times less than in Western Europe.
"The formation of Russian statehood occurred in unfavorable natural climatic conditions, and they changed little since then. Comparing the two northernmost states in the world - Russia and Canada, the American historian R. Pipes noted that the majority of the Canadian population lives in the most southern regions of the country, in a 300-kilometer corridor along the border of the United States, which corresponds to the breadth of the Crimea and the Central Asian steppes of Eurasia. North of the 52nd parallels in Canada live quite a few residents and almost absent agriculture. And the Russian state was formed on the territory between 50 ° and 60 ° of northern latitude. The climate of the industrialized part of Canada approximately corresponds to the climate of the Rostov region and the Krasnodar Territory.
In Russia, there is a world pole of cold, and the average annual temperature is -5.5 ° C. In Finland, the average annual temperature is already + 1.5 °. In Helsinki in winter, warmer than in Orel. In England, Spain, France in January there is a plus temperature. All this is the result of the influence of the warm current of the Gulf Stream. The severity of the climate is also determined by the flow of summer and winter, day and night. Here, Russia is generally out of competition, because the temperature difference may exceed 30 °.
Characteristic feature Climate of Russia has always been the lack of precipitation, moreover, which have fallen mainly for two to three months, which in the chopping areas led to a drought that affects the country for about once every three years. The depth of the soil freezing is already in the Volga region reaches in places 170cm. "
Cold's factor powerfully intervened in the life of Russians: warm things, strong foundations and walls of houses, the need to have food reserves to the "black day", etc.
At all times, this significantly reduced the effectiveness of any production. If the difference between the temperature inside the building and the outside reaches 40-50 °, then the costs are only on the heating of the room become comparable to the rest of the production costs.
"Specialists emphasize: in order to provide in Russia the same as, say, in Western Europe and especially in the United States, the standard of living, the specific average energy cost per person must be 2-3 times higher than now, even with equality of technology, labor productivity and the level of material production levels. Moreover, with a mandatory condition that the energy used will be not more expensive, which, of course, is impossible. "
2.2. Effect of Climate on Socio - Economic Development
"The peasant economy in Russia has extremely limited opportunities for the production of commodity agricultural products, which, in turn, has led the narrowness of the labor market, the lack of opportunities for rapid capital accumulation."
The main settlements of the Eastern Slavs were in the zone of solid forests, wetlands with podzolic, which are affordable for agriculture soils. This for many centuries made a primitive form of earth processing - a housing fire system of agriculture, based on the cutting and burning of the forest and the use of natural fertility of soil and ash as the sole fertilizer. The yield remains low. According to generally accepted calculations, only under the condition that one sown grain when harvesting brings minimum four, you can feed the population.
In Western Europe, this level was achieved back in the XIII century, and in the XVII century. In England, he made ten grains on one sown. This affected the volume of plowing of the Earth and the corresponding labor costs. The English farmer could plow the earth less and lay down the smaller part of the crop on the seeds. In Russia, the yield for a long time was extremely low, and it was achieved enormous labor costs. R. Pipes writes: "It can be argued that civilization begins only when the sown grain reproduces itself at least five times; It is this minimum (assuming the absence of a food importance) determines whether a significant part of the population can be free from the need to produce food and contact other classes. "
In Russia, in the XVIII century. The average yield of grain crops was 3-4 grains per sown. The position began to change only by the end of the XVIII. With the accession of the Northern Black Sea and North Caucasus to Russia.
The centuries-old territorial expansion of Russia and was identified by its desire to improve its geographical position, to move towards seas, and therefore trade routes, and take more comfortable land for the development of agriculture and other sectors of the economy.
For several centuries, the Moscow State made his way to the shores of the Baltic and Black Seas, and in the XVII century. The detachments of the landowners appeared on the coast of the Pacific Ocean. Already then Russia has become one of the largest countries of the world. Were the blessing these territorial acquisitions?
In military-strategic terms, the answer to this question will be positive. It was proved by numerous wars that had to lead Russia. In addition, the promotion east did not cause strong resistance At the small local population. Someone gave way to force, and someone himself asked to take to the Russian citizenship, seeking to defend against the militant neighbors.
However, in socio-economic terms, a lot of new problems generated territorial growth. In essence, so far there are no sufficient funds in our country to master the giant Siberia and the Far East.
Not wanting to put up with a small-earth and consolidating, the most workable and energetic peasants left first to Don, in the lower house of the Volga, later to the Urals, in Siberia, at the Far East. According to experts, it had a huge psychological impact, a kind of mentality of extensive occurred. Dual was the policies of the authorities. On the one hand, they took on themselves with the adoption of the Cathedral Casting of 1649. The obligation to seek to seek and return the faded fortress peasants, but, on the other hand, someone had to master the outskirts. Therefore, many obvious violations of laws simply closed their eyes.
Giant spaces, low population density created a lot of problems for managing and economic development. If in Western Europe, urban settlements were from each other at a distance of 20-30 km and any peasant could get to the nearest city market in one day, then in Russia even on the eve of the First World War, the average distance between cities in the European part of the country was 83 km, and in Siberia - 495 km. This meant that the peasant was required for several days to travel to the market. Large distances, according to the testimony of contemporaries, "make a man neglected the best sales of their works in the markets, which are too far from him.
Thus, the main condition for economic success is the speed of communications and exchange - in Russia there is an indigenous obstacle in the abutation of its population.
Being in relatively cramped conditions, Western European countries have long moved to the path of intensive development, trying to get as much industrial and agricultural products as possible from a unit of Square. Our promotion to the outskirts predetermined the overall extensive path of development of the economy, and therefore the inevitable lag from developed European states.
"It is not difficult to point out those objective factors that identified the socio-cultural lag of a traditional society in Russia from more developed Western European countries. This, firstly, natural-geographical and demographic conditions - the development of a numerically insignificant population of the huge territory (especially in the North-West and the North-East) with sufficient harsh climate and the limited possibilities of agriculture. Colonization in Russia negatively influenced the course of Russian history, since it has exhaustive human resources, contributed to the low population density, prevented the spread of private ownership of land and the use of hired labor. Ultimately, the colonization led to the relatively backward from the Western European civilization in the technical and cultural level in Russia.
Thus, harsh climatic conditions with a strong amplitude of the parameters of the natural environment, requiring collective forms of farming, gave rise to the need for a certain organizing force, which the state has become in Russia. The high viability of communities, their sustainability and the constant need for a paternalistic activity of the state led to a peculiar paradox - the emergence, along with communal self-government, a despotic regime with a very large degree of strength. Russia's geographical position provided its immeasurable space, the state mastering which, according to N.A. Berdyaeva, accompanied by terrible centralization, subordinate to the whole life of the state interest and suppressing free personal and social forces. "
3. The role of Christianity
The adoption of Christianity in 988 was a huge influence on the formation of Russian statehood in the "Tale of Bygone Years" reported on the arrival of Christian, Muslim and Jewish missionaries. Having accepted them, Kiev Prince Vladimir sent a boyars in the neighboring states. After listening to them, he made a choice in favor of Christianity.
It is known that Christianity penetrated the Kiev Rus much earlier than the date of his official adoption in 988. Among the first Russians who accepted baptism was the princess Olga.
"The approval of Christianity in Russia as a state religion became an event of great historical significance. The ancient Russian state has strengthened economic, political and dynastic ties with Christian states. A peculiar recognition of Russia in the West became the marriages of the daughters of Kiev Prince Yaroslav Wise: Anna married the French king of Heinrich I, and Elizabeth became the wife of the Norwegian King Herald. The new religion accelerated the exit of local tribal differences in Russia, contributed to the process of ethnic consolidation.
Christianity brought against Russia a new architecture and painting, contributed to the spread of writing, the development of chronicles, the emergence of schools and libraries, penetration into the country of works of foreign authors. "
After the final split of the Christian Church in 1054, the Orthodox branch of Christianity was established on Catholicism and Orthodoxy in Russia.
Orthodoxy as one of the directions in Christianity began to develop from the middle of the IV century. As the official religion of the Byzantine Empire. Orthodoxy does not have a single church center. Subsequently, several carcurrent (administrative-independent) churches took shape, each of which has its own specifics, but adheres to the overall system of dogmas and rituals. The religious basis of Orthodoxy is the Holy Scripture (Bible) and the Sacred Tradition (solutions of the first seven universal councils and the works of the Fathers of the Church of the II-VIII centuries.).
Archbishop Nikanor so estimated the importance of the choice made by Vladimir Svyatoslavich: "The Orthodox Church brought on Russia from the Orthodox Byzantium the idea of \u200b\u200bthe Grand Duke, as the God of the Lord of the Lord, Ruler and the Supreme Judge of the Substitute Peoples, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe state. The church approved the unity of popular self-consciousness, attaching peoples by the Unity of Faith. The church first created one, then another expensive sanctuary in Kiev and Moscow. The church suffered a diploma and culture, state laws and the laws of the Byzantine kingdom. The only church was gathering the scattered Russian principalities. "
"With the adoption of Christianity in Russia, a church arose as a special feudal-religious organization. The highest power uniting the whole Christian Russia, the Metropolitan of Kiev, who was appointed and subordinate to Constantinople Patriarch. Gradually, Russian Metropolia was divided into dioceses led by bishops. They were obeyed priests in cities and villages. "
Metropolitans and bishops began to receive gifts from the princes in the form of land possessions. Along with the White (Parish) clergy, black (monastic) quickly appeared. Already in the first half of the XI century. The Kiev-Pechersk Monastery became known, which received such a name from the caves-Pechers, in which monks were originally settled. About 70 monasteries were founded in the Domongolian period.
By the time of the adoption of Christianity in Russia in Byzantium, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe feasibility of strong state power was already developed, especially against the background of the sad fate of statehood in the western part of the Roman Empire, the once largest Mediterranean power fallen in VB. Under the strikes of the barbarians. Recall that the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) existed a thousand years.
The boundaries of Orthodox churches, as a rule, coincide with the boundaries of states. They enjoy a local language in the Liturgy and theological literature. Thus, the Orthodox Church and herself is influenced by this or that political regime, the form of government and is interested in a stable strong power.
Byzantine influence led to the commitment of the Kiev clergy of the idea and practice of centralized power. The church proclaimed: "Prince is delivered by God," this is the power indicated above.
Hilarion, the first Kiev Metropolitan from the Russians, in his famous "Word of Law and Grace" in the middle of the XI century. Created the perfect image of the Supreme Ruler, praising Russian Princes Svyatoslav, Vladimir, Yaroslav. He emphasized the Divine Essence of the State, for it realizes the divine will. The pedigree Russian princes Illarion led from the "Old Igor". For the first time in Russia, Illarion put in his treatise the problem of the "righteous" power. He used the formula for the United States of His Earth, which meant: Kiev Prince has a single and sovereign power within the whole territory subject to it. His power is strong by courage and meaning, and he himself should take care of sirah, sick, widow, help the churches and monasteries.
So the views on the strong authorities were formed, able to strengthen the unity of the country (a single faith - a single state - a single state), and about the decent nature of this state (patronage, guardianship with respect to its population),
These ideas were quite satisfied with the princely power, because Orthodoxy brought up faith in people to power and at the same time, unlike the most perfect state car, could convey his views to each subject.
"Noting the importance of the Russian Orthodox Church in the history of Russian statehood, it is impossible not to dwell on the role that she played in collecting Russian lands into a single whole and confronting Catholicism.
In the conditions of fragmentation of Russia among objective prerequisites, a single church organization, not affected by the Mongol-Tatar invasion, was published among the objective prerequisites for the future unification of the Russian lands.
The goldside khans were issued by Russian Metropolitans special letters, who freed the church from the payment of Dani, duties and mantle messages. It strengthened the economic position of the church. Her hierarchs often performed as arbitrators in the disputes of Russian princes. Monasteries played an important role in the preservation of the cultural heritage of the ancient Russian state, the priests supported the idea of \u200b\u200bthe unity of Russian lands. The hierarchs of the Russian Orthodox Church was not mistaken, stopping his choice on the Moscow princes, who were able to embody this idea to life. You can mention the mobility role of Metropolitan Peter, Feoganoste, Alexy.
The latter even ruled the Moscow principality at the Minor Prince Dmitry Donskoy. He managed to neutralize the attempts of Chanov Golden Horde to take advantage of the favorable coincidence and find a counterweight in Moscow in the face of Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod Prince Dmitry Konstantinovich. Going to the battle with Mama, Prince Dmitry, according to the legend, visited the Trinity Monastery and received a blessing to the uta feat from the famous devotee of the Land of the Russian Heguman Sergius Radonezh.
Orthodoxy spiritually united Russian lands and often became the banner of the struggle with foreign invaders. Considered this factor and Russian princes. In 1248, the ambassadors of the Pope Innocent IV were offered to the Novgorod Prince Alexander Nevsky to recognize the "Mother of the Roman Church" to "taste ... the fruits of eternal bliss", and as a first step to cooperate promised assistance in the fight against the Golden Chanians. Prince rejected these proposals: "We do not accept the doctrine from you." On the example of the Baltic, conquered with the blessing of the Pope of Roman, he saw how Western European feudalles were mastered on the captured lands - built castles, chostels, enshrined the peasants. He took into account that the crusade led in 1204 to the capture of Constantinople and the death of the Byzantine Empire. Under these conditions, consent to the proposal of Pope of Roman meant, essentially, the subordination of the Russian land to the German rulers.
In the second third of the XV century. The Catholic Church tried to enhance his influence on Russia once again. The Russian Metropolitan Greek Isisidor, appointed by Constantinople, signed in 1439. The so-called Florentine Ulya, proclaiming the association of Eastern and Western Christian churches.
Returning to Moscow in San Cardinal Isidor was arrested and sharpened in the miracles of the monastery "Yako Apostate of Faith." In response to the conclusion of Florentine Union, the Russian Orthodox Church in 1448 was separated from the Constantinople Patriarchate and became independent in administrative terms. The seizure of Turks in 1453. Konstantinople was perceived in Russia as an act of retaliation for betrayal. The authority of the Greek Church turned out to be seriously undermined, despite the fact that she also abandoned the ENI with Catholicism.
The Catholic Church in the same age tried to influence the policies of the Moscow authorities, using the marriage of Ivan III on the nephew of the last Byzantine emperor, brought up in the spirit of Florentine Union. At the same time, Pope hoped to attract Ivan III to combat Turkey. But the Moscow Prince, being a sober politician, did not go to the conflict with the powerful Ottoman Empire, to whom Russia was not yet ready. During the Livonian war 1558-1583. The representative of Pope A. Possevino, a proposal of Ulyu - the Union of Orthodox and Catholics came to Ivan Grozny. Dad insisted on the unity of churches, offering his help and mediation in resolving a long conflict between the Moscow state and the responding speech. Ivan Grozny rejected these proposals.
However, by this time, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe Union of two churches had already a lot of supporters among some Orthodox priests in the Commonwealth. The Constantinople Patriarch of Jeremiah II was relied on them, when he granted the status of self-government Lviv's fraternity, appointing the Patriarch Exarm in the Lviv Supporter of Ulya K. Terletsky.
In 1595, Terletsky visited Pope Roman, and the first year in the city of Brest was convened by the Metropoliary (Uniatsky) Cathedral, which proclaimed the Ulya - the Union of Orthodox and Catholic Churches on the territory of the Commonwealth. In Message to Uniam at the beginning of the XVII century. Pope Urban VIII spoke about his desire to "reach the East".
"The activity of the Catholic Church was quite explained. At the end of the XVI century. In Western Europe, a wide anti-catalytic movement flashed. In Germany, Martin Luther and his followers opposed the church hierarchy, against the mediation role of the clergy in communicating with God, against the wealth of the church. Reformation gave rise to Protestantism - another direction in Christianity. A number of European countries have come out of the village of the Catholic Church, and she was ready to take revenge in the east. In this she was striving to help the Polish king of Sigismund III, who also dreamed of returning a number of Eastern lands, lost earlier in wars with the Moscow State. "
It is not by chance that the monastery of the monastery of Grigory Oreveyev who fled to Poland, who gave himself to the miraculously saved younger son of Ivan the Terrible Tsarevich Dmitry, accepted Catholicism, promised to spread Catholicism in Russia, agreed to activities there of Jesuites (members of the Catholic monastic order of Jesus, founded in 1534 . To combat the Reformation) and received for this military support for some Polish magnates. After the failure of the False Devituri, Poland was already openly intervened in the internal affairs of Russia.
At the end of the summer, 1609. Polish troops were besieged Smolensk. Other Polish governors and Russian tuckers from Lhadmitriya II camp signed an agreement with the Polish king on the call on the Russian throne of his son, Koriiccha Vladislav. Against the Polish, as well as the Swedish Interventory begins the People's War. Patriarcha in the creation of folk militia played Patriarch of Hermogene to defend the Orthodoxy and the Orthodox state. The majority of the population united around this idea, and the interventories were expelled from Moscow.
4. Factor of external threat
Another geopolitical factor that has enormous influence on the nature of Russian statehood has become an external threat.
Historically, the Russians settled on extensive spaces of Europe and Asia, taking important strategic positions between such different civilizations as the Christian West and mostly the Muslim East. In addition, Russian lands contain tremendous reserves of minerals. Therefore, it was not by chance that Russia has always been a permanent pressure object.
From 1055 to 1462, Rus moved 245 invasions. The greatest disaster for her was the invasion of Mongolian Khanov's troops in the XIII century.
During this invasion, there was a massive extermination and enslavement of the population, the destruction of large cities - centers of culture. Almost completely destroyed the population of Ryazan, Vladimir, Torzhka, Kozelsk. Suzdal, Moscow, Yaroslavl, Tver, Dmitrov, Kiev and other cities, many of which have never appeared on the country's map, burned.
Vladimir-Suzdal lands were devastated in the XIII century. Five times five times, Tver - two, South Russian - seven times. The Ordans destroyed Pereyaslavl-Zalessky four times, three times - Suzdal and Murom.
About each of them can be said in the words of the chronicler: "Many of the dead lying and hail is ruined, the Earth is empty, the churches are pushed", "People are beer from an elder to a burning baby." Architecture and painting monuments were subjected to ruthless destruction. Imported tools of production and metal products, thousands of prisoners.
Some types of crafts disappeared, stone construction has suspended almost a century.
The Russian land economy was depleted by a systematic tribute. Almost two and a half centuries were required by Russian people to reset the Goldenordan Igo.
The west neighbors immediately took advantage of Russia. For several centuries, they largely blocked the access of Rus to the Baltic Sea, captured Western Russian lands (future Belarus and Ukraine), which managed to return only at the end of the XVIII century.
At the beginning of the XVII century. There was an invasion of Russia of Polish and Swedish interventories, at the beginning of the XIX - French, in the XX century. - German (twice). In the XVI century Russian (Moscow) The state fought with the speech of a compulcancy, the Livonian Order, Sweden, the Crimean Khanatests of 43 years old, in the XVII century. With these same states - 48 years. Russian Empire in the XVIII century. He spent in wars with Turkey, Sweden, Poland, Prussia 56 years. In the XIX century Russia fought with France and the United Kingdom, the Ottoman Empire and Iran 67 years. In the XX century Russia (USSR) spent 28 years in wars (excluding numerous local conflicts with the participation of our servicemen, with the exception of wars in Spain and Afghanistan).
"It is impossible not to take into account the fact that the enemy, entering into the limits of Russia, has already initially planned the extremely cruel methods of warfare. Compare two statements. Napoleon: "Five years later I will be Mr. Mira, one Russia remains, but I will give it up." Hitler, claiming the master plan "OST" - the plan of colonization of Eastern Europe, said: "We must exterminate the population - this is included in our mission to protect the German population ... I have the right to destroy millions of lower races, which multiply as worms."
How many strengths were required by the peoples of Russia every time to rebel literally from the ashes, to restore the destroyed, revived the spirit, not falling out of the rules of world development, not to become a colonial appendage of neighbors. Russia more than once saved European civilization from the threat of destruction. So it was during the Mongolian invasions, during the fight against Napoleon, on time of World War II. The West, as a rule, led aggressive policies against Russia, which was recognized by the largest Western European scientists.
So, the English historian A. Toynby, describing the West's policies in relation to the rest of the world, wrote: "No matter how much the peoples of the world in the color of the skin, language, religion and degrees of civilization, to the question of the Western researcher about their relation to the West, the Russians And Muslims, Hindus and the Chinese, the Japanese and everyone else - they will answer the same way. The West, they will say, is the architeor of the modern era, and everyone has its own example of Western aggression. Russians will remind them how their lands were occupied by Western armies in 1941,1915,1812,109 and 1610; Peoples of Africa and Asia will recall how since the XV century, Western missionaries, merchants, soldiers deposited their land from the sea.
Asians can still recall that in the same period the West seized the lion's share free territories In both America, Australia, New Zealand, South America and East Africa. And Africans - about how they were paid to slavery and transported across the Atlantic to make alive guns to increase the richness of their greedy Western owners. "
Of course, Russia entered the war and on its own initiative (for example, the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878), due to allied obligations (Italian and Swiss marchs of the Russian army under the command of A.V. Suvorov), was drawn to military conflicts For mistakes of their rulers (Russian-Japanese War 1904-1905). In wars with neighboring states, Russia was often pursued by a psychologically explained goal - not to have potentially strong opponents from his frontiers. This policy came out for the resistance of not only the leading Western European powers, but sometimes even those countries for whom Russia went to considerable sacrifices. For example, in battles for the liberation of Bulgaria from Turkish yoke, our army lost over 200 thousand people. "Meanwhile, the participant of the Russian-Turkish war is 1877-1878, the famous Russian historian of the end of the XIX century S.S. Tatishchev wrote:
"By virtue of its historical calling, Russia freed one for another Christian peoples of the Balkan Peninsula, who were under the dominance of the Turks. She, and her one, are obliged to freedom and Romania, and Serbia, and Greece, and, finally, Bulgaria. But, looking backing in the relationship, established between the holding-winner, I have not been created, it is impossible not to note that striking in its constancy phenomenon that, as the independence of each of the countries mentioned, the Russian influence continued in them, and the newly formed states became often To the situation, even hostile Russia, which thus made his liberation mission in explicit damage to his political influence on the fate of the East. "
At the same time, the financial costs of Russia on the "landscaping" of other peoples constantly grew. Even more funds at all times demanded armed forces. So, in 1679-1680. 62.2% of the expenditure part of the budget went to the army, in 1796 - 35.5%, in the Epoch of "Great Reforms" military spending absorbed on average 25% of the annual budget, 1913. - 28.5%.
These amounts are not included in the cost of building strategic railways, port structures, arrangement of the most extended land border, etc. These works were financed by the estimates of other departments. The problems of defense and safety from the very beginning of the emergence of the Russian state dominated all the rest of the needs. In Russia, according to researcher, A. G. Phonotova, "such a time with such mechanisms of the socio-economic and political organization and the orientation of the Company were included, which invariably conducted the country to transform into a certain semblance of a militiated camp with centralized management, a tough hierarchy, behavior regulation ( Those. strict discipline), enhancing control over various aspects of activity
"Thus, under the influence of the above factors: the natural-climatic, geopolitical, religious, Russia has developed a specific social organization. Its main elements: 1) Primary economic and social cell - corporation (community, artel, partnership, collective farm, cooperative, etc.), and not private education, as in the West; 2) the state is not a superstructure over civil society, as in Western countries, but the "margin of the ridge", and sometimes the Creator of civil society; 3) statehood either possesses a sacred character or ineffective ("troubled"); 4) the state, society, personality is not divided, not autonomous, as in the West, and mutual, are intertwined; 5) The stem of statehood constitutes a service corporation for nobility (nobility, nomenclature ...).
This social organization was distinguished by emergency stability and, changing his forms, and not the essence, was reconstructed after each shock of Russian history, providing the viability of the Russian society. "
Conclusion
Summing up, it can be noted that all major geopolitical factors contributed to the strengthening of the role of the state in domestic history, and the state is largely paramilitary, with a harsh internal policy regime for all segments of the Russian population.
In foreign policy, both Muscovy and the Russian Empire played the rules adopted in the world, with greater or less successful contributing to strengthening the prestige of the Russian Power.
All Russian rulers realized well that any of their political position, not reinforced by military power, is not perceived in the international arena seriously. As a result, up to half of the budget went on the main allies of the country, which, according to Emperor Alexander III, there were only her army and fleet. All this could not not affect the traditions, worldview, the lifestyle of many generations of Russians.
For more than a thousand years there is a Russian state. According to the most famous historian and lawyer, the second half of the XIX century B. N. Chicherina, his appearance became a turning point of Russian history, and "hence it is an irrepressible stream, in a slim development, moves to our time. Directions are more or less changed, there are also deviations to the side, but the overall nature of the movement is one.
Each later era is a consistent development of the previous one, represents the answer to the question made it. All of them have one goal, one task is a state device. Here is the main characteristic feature of Russian history from the XV century, here is the result of the activities of the Russian people and the merit of it before mankind. "
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