1 theoretical foundations of the organization of accounting. Moscow State University of Printing Arts
Cash- Organizations on settlement and other bank accounts. From them, settlements are made with suppliers and buyers, with banks, financial authorities through non-cash transfers. Small amounts cash can be in the organization's cash desk within the established limit.
Funds in settlements- these are the debts of other organizations or persons to this economic entity. Such debt is called accounts receivable, and the debtors themselves - debtors. Receivables arises as a result of existing forms of payment for products, works and services in the event that their transfer to the buyer reflects payments for them. Employees of the organization can also be debtors; called responsible persons.
As part of current assets, abstract assets are also distinguished. They can be represented by short-term financial investments and losses. Losses- is the loss of assets as a result of irrational management or natural disasters. This part of the assets is completely eliminated from economic circulation. However, each enterprise has established control over losses by the time of their occurrence and the procedure for their coverage. The grouping of assets by types is shown in fig. 1.1.
Long-term and current assets, in turn, are divided as follows:
The economic resources (assets) of an economic entity are formed by attracting various sources, therefore, it has obligations to organizations and persons that have provided their assets for temporary use.
Depending on the mechanism of formation and use of obligations, there are: own capital and borrowed capital.
Equity- the most important source of formation of assets of the economy. It is attributed authorized capital, additional capital, reserve capital, retained earnings, target financing.
Authorized capital (share, authorized fund)- originally invested capital. It is understood as the value of property contributed by the owners or shareholders (participants) at the time of the creation of an economic entity (contributions of the founders, the cost of fixed assets, intangible and other assets), necessary to ensure its statutory activities. The authorized capital may change.
Extra capital- own capital of the organization, formed as a result of additional contributions by the owners of funds in excess of the registered authorized capital, changes in the value of assets.
The reserve capital (fund) is formed at the expense of a part of the organization's profit and is used to cover losses resulting from extraordinary circumstances, the payment of dividends and income in case of insufficient profit.
Undestributed profits- part of the profit of the organization, remaining at its disposal as a source of financing.
reserves upcoming expenses are created by organizations in order to evenly include in the expenses of the reporting period the costs of paying employees' holidays, paying bonuses for long service, and repairing fixed assets.
Target financing as a source of asset formation comes from the outside (the state and other organizations) and is used to cover the costs associated with targeted activities.
In case of insufficiency of own sources of formation of assets, organizations attract capital from outside (raised capital).
Raised capital- these are the obligations (debts) of this organization to other organizations and persons. Organizations and persons that have provided this organization with a loan of assets are called creditors, and the obligations that arose in connection with their receipt are called accounts payable. Depending on the maturities of liabilities, a distinction is made between long-term borrowed capital and short-term borrowed capital.
Long-term borrowed capital includes bank loans and loans. Long-term loans- amounts of funds received from banks for a period of more than one year to finance the organization of capital investments in fixed assets, advanced technologies, etc.
Long-term loans include amounts of funds received from the issue and sale of shares of the labor collective, bonds.
Short-term capital raised by the mechanism of formation can be combined into several groups:
- short-term loans and borrowings (liabilities to banks and other organizations for received loans and borrowings, the maturity of which does not exceed 12 months after the reporting date). All loans issued by banks are paid, repayable, urgent and targeted;
- accounts payable (debts of the enterprise to suppliers for goods and services, on promissory notes issued); the same group includes debts to its employees for accrued but unpaid wages arising from the fact that the moment of its accrual and payment do not coincide in time. This is the same mechanism for the formation of debts to the social insurance and security bodies, to the budget for taxes;
- deferred income (funds received in advance, debt repayment on which is expected in the next reporting periods - receiving an advance for an object that will be built for several reporting periods; rent for the year, etc.).
The grouping of assets by sources of education is shown in fig. 1.4.
The composition of equity and borrowed capital is shown in Figures 1.5. and 1.6.
Having studied the issue of classifying the property of an enterprise, we will give a definition of the subject accounting.
Subject of accounting- reflection of the state and movement of assets, the sources of their formation and the results of the activity of an economic entity (organization). The content of the subject is most clearly revealed through the objects of accounting: long-term and short-term current assets, equity and borrowed capital and transactions arising in the process of implementation economic activity.
Accounting method- a set of methods and techniques by which the subject (objects) of accounting is known. It allows you to study phenomena in motion, change, interconnection and interaction. The accounting method depends on the subject of accounting, i.e. reflected and controlled objects, as well as the tasks set for accounting and the requirements for it.
Therefore, the method cannot be considered as something frozen. The development of scientific and technological progress imposes new requirements on accounting, and this causes a change in its methods and methods. For example, the use of computer technology leads to an improvement in the methods of observation, control and registration business transactions, information retrieval.
The accounting method includes the following methods and techniques, which are commonly called elements of the accounting method: documentation and inventory, valuation and costing, accounts and double entry, balance sheet and reporting.
Documentation- a written certificate of the completed business transaction or the right to perform it. Every business transaction is documented. The document serves not only as a basis for recording transactions, but also as a way of primary observation and registration of them. Documentation serves the purposes of control, makes it possible to conduct documentary checks, ensure the safety of property.
Inventory - a way to check the compliance of the actual presence of the property of the economy in kind with accounting data: as an element of the accounting method - a means of monitoring and subsequent registration of phenomena and operations that are not reflected in the primary documentation at the time they were committed. Therefore, the inventory serves as an addition to the documentation.
Documentation and inventory are methods of primary observation of accounting objects.
Grade- the way in which the assets of an economic entity receive monetary value. The valuation of the assets of an economic entity is based on their actual cost, which achieves the reality of the assessment.
To manage business processes, you need to know all the costs associated with their implementation. In this case, not only the value of each type of cost is calculated, but also the total amount related to a particular object, i.e. the cost of accounting objects is determined. The cost of accounting objects is calculated using the calculation used to control the amount of costs.
For constant monitoring of the economic processes of the organization for the state of assets and sources of their formation, it is necessary to take into account all business transactions continuously by stages of circulation, as well as in the context of individual groups and types of economic assets. In accounting, such a reflection of economic means and processes is carried out by monitoring the changes that occur with various types of property and sources of its formation, for all the costs incurred in a particular economic process.
The economic grouping of accounting objects and obtaining the necessary information about them for the purpose of current monitoring of economic activity is provided by the system of accounts. The use of accounts is explained by the fact that the information available in the documents gives only a disparate description of accounting objects, while the accounts allow you to obtain their generalized characteristics.
The reflection of business transactions in the system of accounts is carried out using a double entry, the essence of which lies in the interconnected reflection of various phenomena caused by business transactions.
Control over the entire set of objects in accounting is carried out by comparing assets with the sources of their formation. Such a comparison is called balance generalization. It is characterized by the equality total amount types of funds and the amount of sources of their formation. This equality is permanent.
The results of economic activity are contained in the reporting of the organization. Financial statements- a unified system of information on the financial position of an economic entity for a certain period of time.
The assets of the organization are continuously involved in economic turnover, changing their composition and form of value. For management, business entities need to know what assets it has, from what sources they are created, for what purpose they are intended. These questions are answered by the balance sheet.
Balance sheet- a method of summarizing and grouping the assets of the economy and the sources of their formation on a certain date in monetary terms. As an element of the accounting method, it is characterized by the following features.
The assets of the economy and the sources of their formation are presented separately: economic resources - in the asset, and sources - in liabilities. The total of the balance sheet asset is always equal to the total of the balance sheet liability:
ASSETS = LIABILITIES.
Since liabilities represent the capital and liabilities of the organization, this equality can be represented as follows:
ASSETS = EQUITY + LIABILITIES.
In the balance sheet, assets and liabilities are presented only in value terms.
Each element of the asset and liability of the balance sheet is called a balance sheet item. Any article of the balance sheet asset allows you to get the following characteristics economic resources: what this part of the assets is embodied in, where they are used, their value.
Any article of the balance sheet liability allows you to get the following characteristics of the sources of formation of economic resources: due to what source this part of the assets was created, for what purpose they are intended, their value.
All assets and liabilities of the balance sheet, based on their economic homogeneity, are summarized in certain sections of the balance sheet.
The balance sheet asset contains two sections: non-current assets; current assets.
Liability balance consists of three sections: capital and reserves; long term duties ; short-term obligations.
Sections in the asset balance are arranged in ascending order of liquidity, and in liabilities - according to the degree of consolidation of sources.
The composition of the sections of the balance sheet and the procedure for grouping articles in them are regulated by regulations.
The balance sheet contains a set of momentary indicators characterizing the assets of the economy and the sources of their formation on a certain date.
In this way, balance sheet- this is a way of grouping the assets of the economy according to the types and sources of their formation in value terms as of a certain date.
The grouping of economic resources in the asset balance is presented in Table 1.1.
In section I of the balance sheet asset "Non-current assets" all long-term assets of an economic entity are presented: intangible assets, fixed assets, long-term financial investments, capital investments.
Articles of the "Intangible assets" group are valued in the balance sheet at their residual value. residual value of this group of assets is determined as the difference between the initial (replacement) cost and the amount of accrued depreciation.
The articles of the group “Fixed assets” are also evaluated, with the exception of the article “ Land". Depreciation is not charged for this type of asset. In the balance sheet, all fixed assets and intangible assets are presented in one section, regardless of the scope of operation.
The articles of the group “Financial investments” reflect investments of funds and other property in other economic bodies for a period of more than one year; under the item "Capital investments" - the actual costs in construction in progress.
Section II of the balance sheet asset "Current assets" reflects non-current assets by several groups. In the "Reserves" group, separate articles represent current assets of the production sector. Raw materials and materials are valued in the balance at the actual procurement cost. Costs in work in progress can be valued at standard cost, at the sum of direct costs, or at actual production cost. The same section also reflects the items of circulation: finished products and goods shipped, deferred expenses, which should be valued at actual cost.
The second group of current assets are short-term financial investments in other organizations. The “Cash” group is represented by the items “Cash”, “Settlement accounts”, “Currency accounts”, “Other cash”.
The same section of the asset also reflects the receivables of both other organizations and individuals, and employees of this business entity.
Liabilities balance consists of three sections (Table 1.2.). Section III of the balance sheet is presented own capital, and sections IV and V reflect the attracted capital.
IN section III balance "Capital and reserves" independent articles reflect their own sources of formation of property - authorized capital, additional capital, reserve capital. The same section shows the undistributed profit of the enterprise of past years and the reporting year. Independent articles presented uncovered loss.
Articles of section IV of the balance sheet "Long-term liabilities" characterize the debt to banks on credits and loans received from other organizations for a period of more than one year.
Section V of the balance sheet "Current liabilities" combines several groups short-term debt: borrowed funds, accounts payable, reserves for future expenses, deferred income.
According to the group Borrowed funds» debts to banks on short-term loans and borrowings to other enterprises are reflected as separate items.
The items of the “Accounts payable” group reflect the debt to suppliers and contractors for the inventory items received from them, to subsidiaries and affiliates, employees of the organization, the budget, and social funds.
Depending on the purpose, content and order of compilation, several types of balance sheets are distinguished.
The balance sheet characterizes in monetary terms the assets of the economy and the sources of their formation as of a certain date. The balance sheet is compiled by the accounting department of organizations by counting the balances (balances) on the accounts.
The turnover balance, in addition to the balances of assets and sources of their formation at the beginning and end of the period, contains data on their movement (debit and credit turnovers) for reporting period.
The opening balance (initial) is the first balance drawn up on the date of registration of the organization. The asset of such a balance characterizes the composition of the property of an economic entity, with which its activity begins, and in liabilities - the sources of its occurrence. The opening balance sheet contains fewer items than subsequent balance sheets that reflect the results of economic activity for a certain period of time. Before drawing up the opening balance sheet, as a rule, an inventory and assessment of the organization's available resources is carried out.
Final balance- reporting document on the production financial activities organizations for a given period of time. It is compiled on the basis of verified accounting records (reconciliation of turnovers and balances on accounts, verification of inventory of assets).
The liquidation balance sheet is intended to characterize the property status of the organization on the date of termination of its activities as a legal entity.
The preliminary balance sheet is developed in advance at the end of the reporting period, taking into account the expected changes in the composition of the organization's property. The basis for compiling such a balance sheet is the actual accounting data on the state of assets and liabilities at the time of its preparation and the expected data on business transactions that will be completed before the end of the reporting period. Pre-balance allows you to pre-set financial position organizations at the end of the reporting period.
The gross balance sheet includes regulatory items; is used for scientific research, improving the information functions of the balance, etc.
Net balance- balance sheet, from which the regulatory items are excluded: "Depreciation of fixed assets", "Depreciation intangible assets”, etc. in modern conditions, the value of the net balance has increased, since it allows you to determine the real value of the organization's assets. Currently, the net balance is the current reporting form.
Every day, organizations perform many business transactions that affect the value of assets and the sources of their formation. Since the balance reflects the state of the property, each operation affects the balance by changing the value of its items. Depending on the impact on the balance sheet, all business transactions are usually divided into four types.
The first type of business transactions is associated with the regrouping of the organization's assets. The first type includes operations for the receipt of funds to the current account from the cash desk or from debtors, the issuance of money from the cash desk to accountable persons, the return of unspent amounts by accountable persons to the cash desk, the release of materials from the warehouse to production, receipt from production finished products to the warehouse, shipment of finished products from the warehouse to customers, etc.
The second type of business transactions is associated with the regrouping of the obligations of the organization. The second type also includes operations to use profits to create accumulation and consumption funds.
Thus, business transactions of the second type lead to changes only in the liabilities side of the balance sheet. The total balance sheet total does not change.
The third type of business transactions is associated with an increase in property. Operations of the third type include operations for calculating wages for the organization's personnel, for crediting loans to its accounts, obtaining loans, etc.
The fourth type of business transactions is associated with a decrease (disposal) of property.
Operations of the fourth type include operations for the payment of wages to the personnel of the organization, the repayment of debts to suppliers, the budget, and social funds.
Reflecting the state of economic resources at a certain point in time, the balance sheet reveals the structure of assets and sources of their formation in the context of types and groups, allows you to determine the share of each group, their relationship and interdependence among themselves, serves as a source of information necessary to identify the most important indicators that characterize it financial condition.
According to the balance sheet, the provision with assets, the correctness of their use, the size of inventories, compliance with financial discipline, profitability of work, etc. signaling shortcomings in work and financial condition, it serves as the basis for identifying their causes.
Based on the balance sheet data, measures are developed to eliminate them, and the correct use of assets for their intended purpose is monitored. It gives a complete and complete picture not only of the financial condition of the enterprise at each moment, but also of the changes that have occurred over a particular period of time. The latter is achieved by comparing balance sheets for a number of reporting periods.
The organization's balance sheet contains generalized data on accounting objects as of a certain date. The operational management of an organization in order to make appropriate management decisions makes it necessary to have continuous information about the state and movement of assets and sources of their formation. In this regard, the system of accounts is used in accounting.
Account system- a method of economic grouping, current reflection and operational control over the assets of the organization and business operations.
Each account is designed to reflect a specific accounting object. On the basis of primary documents, current data on homogeneous business transactions are accumulated and systematized on the account.
In relation to the balance sheet, accounting accounts are divided into two groups: accounts for accounting for assets (asset accounts) and accounts for accounting for sources of asset formation (source accounts).
All asset accounts are active accounts. They have the following structure: account balance (can only be debit), debit turnover (indicates the receipt of assets), credit turnover (their use, disposal).
Operations for any active account may have a ending balance (CK) greater than 0 or equal to 0, which will be reflected in the diagram as follows.
On an active account, the final balance (Sk) cannot be less than zero, since you cannot spend more assets than there were.
Active accounts include “Fixed Assets”, “Materials”, “Cashier”, “Settlement Account”, “Intangible Assets”, “Settlements with Founders”, etc.
All accounts of sources of formation of assets are passive. in a passive account, the initial balance is always reflected in the loan (credit balance), and an increase in sources is also reflected on the same side of the account. The decrease in sources is reflected in the debit of passive accounts. When recording operations on a passive account, two cases may arise.
Passive accounts include “Authorized capital”, “Settlements on short-term loans and borrowings”, “Settlements with suppliers and contractors”, “Settlements with personnel for wages”, etc.
A special group is made up of active-passive accounts, which combine the features of active and passive accounts. An example is the account “Other income and expenses”, the debit of which reflects other expenses, and the credit shows other income. Comparing the turnover on the account, we determine the balance, which can be either on the debit of the account (expenses exceeded other income), or on the credit of the account (other income is greater than other expenses). Separate accounts can have two balances at once.
There is a close relationship between accounts and balance:
- each balance sheet item, as a rule, corresponds to an account, except when individual items reflect the data of several accounts (for example, the item “Raw materials and materials” contains balances on the accounts “Materials”, “Procurement and purchase of materials”, (“Deviations in the cost of materials ”) or vice versa, balances on some accounts are shown in the balance sheet in several items (account “Settlements with suppliers and contractors”);
- accounts are divided into active and passive similarly to balance sheet items;
- balances of assets and sources of their formation are shown on the accounts on the same side as in the balance sheet;
- the sum of balances on all active accounts is equal to the total of the asset (currency) of the balance sheet, and on all passive accounts - to the total of the liability (currency) of the balance sheet;
- the balance sheet is drawn up on the basis of the data of the accounting accounts, and the accounts are opened on the basis of the balance sheet data.
All business transactions are reflected in the accounts of accounting by double entry.
double entry- a way to reflect each operation in the debit of one and the credit of another related accounts in the same amount.
The use of double entry has an objective nature and is associated with the dual nature of the reflection of business transactions. The need for double entry is expressed in four types of balance sheet changes.
Double entry gives accounting a systemic character, provides a relationship between accounts, which allows you to combine them into single system.
Double entry is of great informational importance, as it allows obtaining information about the movement of economic resources and sources of their formation, helps to control the movement of assets and sources of their formation.
Double entry makes it possible to check the economic content of business transactions and the legitimacy of their implementation, starting from a separate operation and ending with the reflection in the balance sheet, and ensures the identification of errors in accounts. Each amount is reflected on the debit and credit of different accounts, so the turnover on the debit of all accounts must be equal to the turnover on the credit of these accounts. The violation of equality indicates the assumption of errors in the records, which must be found and corrected.
Each business transaction is reflected in the accounts of accounting by double entry. In this case, the amount of the operation is reflected in the debit of one and the credit of another account, i.e. between the accounts on which the operation is reflected, a relationship arises.
The relationship between the debit of one and the credit of another account, resulting from the double entry of a business transaction on them, is called the correspondence of accounts. Accounts between which such a relationship has arisen are called corresponding.
Designation of correspondence accounts, i.e. the names of debited and credited accounts indicating the amount for this operation is called an ACCOUNTING RECORD (transaction).
Accounting records, according to the number of accounts affected by them, are divided into simple and complex.
It is customary to call such accounting records, in which only two accounts correspond - one for debit and the other for credit.
Complex accounting entries are those in which one debit account corresponds to several credit accounts or vice versa.
When compiling complex entries, it should be borne in mind that only the entry in which the correspondence of the accounts is clearly expressed is correct, therefore, you should not draw up an accounting entry where several debit and credit accounts are affected at the same time.
Accounting records are made on the basis of documents in which the content of a business transaction is recorded. To control the completeness of the reflection of all business transactions, accounting records are recorded in the sequence of economically heterogeneous transactions. The reflection of business transactions in chronological sequence is called a chronological record.
To determine the indicators of economic activity, all business transactions are grouped according to economically homogeneous features.
The grouping of accounts by economic content is carried out to determine the list of accounts and their homogeneous groups necessary to reflect the economic activities of a separate organization.
Requests for business transactions in a particular system are called systematic. Chronological and systematic records can be kept separately and together.
To manage business activities, it is necessary to have information about accounting objects of varying degrees of detail in terms of the amount of information. Therefore, in order to obtain data of various levels of detail, all accounts in accounting are divided into two groups: synthetic and analytical. Synthetic accounts serve for an enlarged grouping and accounting for homogeneous objects, while analytical accounts are used for detailed characteristics.
The reflection of property and processes on synthetic accounts is called synthetic accounting, and their reflection on analytical accounts is called analytical accounting.
Synthetic accounting is kept in monetary terms; analytical - three groups of meters are used. In analytical accounts reflecting commodity and material values, accounting is kept in monetary and natural meters, i.e. in quantitative terms.
Synthetic and analytical accounts are closely related. The basis of the relationship is the parallelism of entries in the accounts. The relationship between synthetic and analytical accounts is expressed as follows:
- analytical accounts are maintained to detail synthetic accounts;
- a transaction recorded on a synthetic account must also be reflected on the corresponding analytical accounts opened for this synthetic account;
- on a synthetic account, the transaction is recorded in the total amount, and on its analytical accounts - in private amounts, resulting in the same total amount;
- the entry in analytical accounts is made on the same side as in the synthetic account, i.e. their structure is the same.
Therefore, the initial and final balances, as well as the debit and credit turnovers of a synthetic account, must be equal to the total amounts of the corresponding balances and turnovers of its analytical accounts opened in its development. When summing up for the reporting period, the data of the synthetic and analytical accounts must be verified and match, which indicates the correctness of accounting.
It should be noted that some of the synthetic accounting accounts reflect funds or sources of funds that do not require further detailing. Such synthetic accounts do not have analytical accounts (“Cashier”, “Settlement account”, “Authorized capital”).
An intermediate place between synthetic and analytical accounts is occupied by sub-accounts. subaccount- a way of grouping the data of analytical accounts.
The number of synthetic accounts and sub-accounts is determined by the needs of reporting, and the number of analytical accounts - by the needs of the management of the economic body.
The data of synthetic and analytical accounts are summarized at the end of the reporting period in order to obtain summary information.
Chart of Accounts- classification of the general nomenclature of synthetic accounting indicators. IN Russian Federation a unified Chart of Accounts was developed and is being used, approved by the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation on October 31, 2000 No. 94n.
This means that all organizations, regardless of their organizational and legal form, are required to use this Chart of Accounts for accounting. For ease of use, all accounts are summarized in 8 sections, in accordance with the grouping of accounts by economic content.
Rice. Chart of accounts structure
Instructions for its use have been developed for the chart of accounts, and typical correspondence accounts.
Thus, accounting is characterized by the formation of economic information within the framework of individual economic entities on the basis of continuous and continuous registration of economic processes and phenomena; documenting business transactions; the use of special techniques and methods for their collection and processing; use as the main monetary meter.
Accounting is a regulated system based on a number of principles. The current level of its development meets the requirements of a market economy, based on national regulations for accounting and reporting in accordance with international standards.
Accounting for the financial results of the enterprise
Introduction
In the process of managing an organization, regardless of its form of ownership, numerous economic information is processed. “The leading role in its totality belongs to accounting and economic information, which is due to the specifics of accounting, which, functioning in the management system and covering the processes of production, circulation and distribution of the product, forms complete information about the circulation of funds”1. Because of this, accounting is the most complex information system, consisting of interrelated subsystems, each of which has its own tasks, functions and methods of generating information. The most important of them is the subsystem of accounting for financial results and profit distribution, which integrates all information accounting system on the income and expenses of the organization, the comparison of which gives a financial result, and also generates data on profit as a source financial support various aspects of the organization.
IN last years, under conditions of transition to market relations in the activities of the enterprise financial results began to occupy one of the leading directions, both in the field of accounting, and in the analysis and audit of the enterprise.
The owners of enterprises are interested in maximizing profits, since it is at the expense of profits that enterprises can develop, increase the scale of production, and, consequently, bring more income to their owners. Profit, as the main category of entrepreneurship, has always given rise to various relationships regarding its distribution between entrepreneurship and power - the state. Therefore, the taxation of profits has a powerful impact on the mechanism for generating information on financial results. During the time of the profit tax, which almost coincided with the time of reforms in the country, there was a transition from the subordination of the entire accounting system to profit taxation to its allocation as an independent function. Thus, in the modern practice of the activities of economic entities, there are two accounting systems, the main function of which is the determination of financial results, to a large extent duplicated. However, the relationship between accounting and tax systems formation of financial results is very conditional. This gives rise to its own problems in the organization of accounting for financial results, expressed, first of all, in the absence of a centralized mechanism for restraining the formation of information necessary for narrow groups of users.
Thus, the most urgent problem of information support for the organization's activities is the integration of accounting and tax accounting, to which the development of methodological and methodological principles for the formation of information on financial results should be directed.
The relevance of the topic of the course work is connected not only with the sharply increased role of financial results in the economic development of organizations, but also with the unresolved nature of many problems of the general economic plan.
The main objectives of this work is to study the theoretical aspects of the formation of the financial results of the organization's activities in accounting, as well as to consider taxation of financial results within the framework of this topic.
In accordance with the goals, the following tasks were set:
consider the concept of the financial result of the economic activity of the organization
study the structure of financial results:
within income and expenses
as part of the financial results from common species activities and from other activities
study the system of legal regulation of financial results - PBU 9/99 "Income of the organization", PBU 10/99 "Expenses of the organization", Chapter 25 "Income tax" of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, PBU 18/02 "Accounting for income tax calculations »
consider the accounting of the financial results of the organization's economic activities, including the accounting of income and expenses from ordinary activities and from other activities
Section 1. Theoretical foundations for accounting for financial performance.
1.1 Concept of financial results
The financial result is the profit or loss or difference from comparing the amounts of income and expenses of the organization. The excess of income over expenses means an increase in the organization's property - profit, and expenses over income - a decrease in property - a loss. The financial result received by the organization for the reporting year in the form of profit or loss, respectively, leads to an increase or decrease in the capital of the organization. According to paragraph 79 of the Regulation on accounting and financial reporting in the Russian Federation accounting profit(loss) is the final financial result (profit or loss) revealed for the reporting period based on the accounting of all business operations of the organization and the assessment of items balance sheet according to the rules in force in accordance with regulatory enactments.
IN this definition the following key concepts are used: profit, reporting period, business transactions, assessment of balance sheet items, rules operating in accordance with regulatory enactments.
Profit in its most general form is an increase net assets. Its calculation is necessary for:
enterprise performance evaluation
determination of taxable amount
making decisions related to investments in this enterprise
enrichment of owners (the greater the profit, the higher the share price, the richer the shareholder).
The loss can and should be considered as profit with a minus sign.
“In accounting theory, the criteria of J. Kannig (1884-1962) are known, which the financial result must meet in order to be considered profit:
the profit expected during the year is highly probable
expected revenue can be calculated with a high degree of reliability
estimated costs are calculated with a high degree of probability.
These requirements are purely economic in nature and have influenced both international accounting standards and our PBU 9/99 and PBU 10/99”2.
The reporting period involves the closing of the General Ledger accounts. Accounting theory knows the following options:
as soon as the General Ledger is completely filled with entries, the balance is immediately determined for all accounts and the financial result is displayed
as soon as the production cycle ends, the accounts are closed and the financial result is fixed
as soon as a certain calendar date arrives, an interim financial result is entered for the entire time the company has been operating.
The fact that the financial result of the enterprise’s activities is determined for the reporting period means that the basis for the methods of its calculation is the assumption of business continuity, according to which, when maintaining accounting, it is assumed that in the foreseeable future the organization will not stop its activities and will function normally (clause 6 PBU 1/98). If we assume that the organization will not close in the near future, and in theory the introduction of this assumption means that it will “live forever”, then calculating the profit from its activities as the difference between the funds invested and the proceeds of the owners becomes absolutely meaningless. The financial result (profit or loss) is calculated within the framework of reporting periods - conditionally allocated periods of time, after which financial statements are prepared.
Presentation of information about the indicators of homogeneous business transactions in financial statements is carried out with the help of algorithmization of data on the processes of activity, aimed, among other things, at disclosing elements that characterize the structure of the final financial result. The algorithm for calculating the final financial result in the income statement, given in the Instructions on the scope of accounting reporting forms of July 22, 2003, 67n, highlights the following elements that characterize it:
gross profit
profit/loss on sales
profit/loss before tax
net profit (loss) of the reporting period
Gross profit is the difference between operating income and operating expenses. Profit/loss on sales is the difference between the income from ordinary activities and all expenses associated with this activity, i.e. in essence, this indicator reflects the financial result from ordinary activities. Profit/loss before tax represents the financial result formed only on the ordinary and other operations of the organization. Net profit (retained earnings) (uncovered loss) is the financial result of the organization's activities for a certain period.
1.2. Concepts of income and expenses
The entire economic life of an enterprise consists of two groups of facts of economic life - these are income and expenses.
Income and expenses are those facts of economic life that, from an economic, legal and accounting point of view, change the financial result of the economic activity of an enterprise.
The accounting definition of income and expenses is aimed at revealing the ways of their reflection in accounting and demonstrating data about them in the financial statements of the enterprise. It is based on the synthesis of economic and legal interpretations of income and expenses. Characteristics of income and expenses, their classification and evaluation, recognition in accounting and reporting are currently determined by two regulatory documents: PBU 9/99 "Income of the organization" and PBU 10/99 "Expenses of the organization", which were approved by order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation 6 May 1999 No. 32n and 33n, respectively.
In the Accounting Regulations, the rules for generating income and expenses are considered in their synchronization and comparison to obtain the resulting financial indicator - profit or loss. The financial result of the organization's activities characterizes its position in the market, the success of management, the capitalization of the company and other aspects of interest to all users of financial statements. Reliable indicators of profit (loss), understandable and allowing to obtain unambiguous conclusions when using financial statements, are possible if they are formed on the basis of unified and well-known rules. This purpose is served by the norms and rules set forth in these PBUs.
The concept of income and expenses underlying the Accounting Regulations is that not all costs are expenses, just as not all receipts are income.
According to paragraph 2 of PBU 9/99, an increase in economic benefits as a result of the receipt of assets (cash, other property) and (or) the repayment of obligations, leading to an increase in the capital of this organization, with the exception of contributions from participants (property owners).
There are such concepts requiring a separate definition as "increase in economic benefits" and "increase in capital".
From the text of PBU 9/99 it follows that the economic benefits of an enterprise increase in the event that any property is placed at its disposal. This can be both the emergence of a debt of debtors (legal interpretation), and the repayment of obligations in cash or other tangible (intangible) values (economic interpretation).
PBU 10/99 defines an organization's expenses as a decrease in economic benefits as a result of the disposal of assets (cash, other property) and (or) the emergence of liabilities, leading to a decrease in the capital of this organization, with the exception of a decrease in contributions by decision of participants (property owners).
The change in the capital of the enterprise as a result of accounting for the facts of economic life, defined as income and expenses, is due to the amount of profit or loss reflected in the accounting (the difference between income and expenses). It follows that one way or another, the accounting of income and expenses of an enterprise is subordinate to the goal of determining the financial result of its activities (profit or loss). This allows us to give somewhat more simplified accounting definitions of income and expenses, according to which income is understood as an accounting assessment of the facts of economic life that increase the financial result of the enterprise, and under the expense - reduce its financial result.
“At the same time, it is very important to keep in mind the rule of the Italian accountant D. Zappa (1879-1960):
the income of the enterprise is obvious, but the expenses are doubtful”3.
This rule proceeds from the fact that income is fixed by documents and the receipt of assets, while the amount of expenses is determined by the administration, choosing the rules for estimating reserves and writing them off as production costs, using various options for depreciation and the formation of reserves. Thus, incomes are objective, while expenses are to some extent subjective. In order to introduce this subjectivism (scientific anarchism) into the framework, normative documents introduce the terms used in the formulation of their norms into a strict conceptual framework. So in the case of income and expenses PBU 9/99 and PBU 10/99, defining a number of facts of economic life as income and expenses, they also name the facts of economic life that do not belong to these categories. According to the definitions that we have considered above, income does not include contributions from participants (owners of property), and expenses do not include a decrease in contributions by decision of participants (owners of property).
There are certain criteria for the recognition of income and expenses.
PBU 9/99 defines the list of receipts from legal entities and individuals that are the conditions for recognition:
“the organization has the right to receive this revenue, arising from a specific contract or otherwise confirmed as appropriate;
the amount of proceeds can be determined;
there is confidence that as a result of a particular operation there will be an increase in the economic benefits of the organization. There is certainty that as a result of a particular transaction there will be an increase in the economic benefits of the organization, there is a case when the organization received an asset in payment or there is no uncertainty regarding the receipt of the asset;
the right of ownership (possession, use and disposal) of the product (goods) has passed from the organization to the buyer or the work has been accepted by the customer (the service has been rendered);
the costs incurred or to be incurred in connection with this transaction can be determined”4.
The criteria for recognition of expenses are:
“the expense is made in accordance with a specific contract, the requirement of legislative and regulatory acts, business customs;
the amount of the expense can be determined;
there is confidence that as a result of a particular transaction there will be a decrease in the economic benefits of the organization. There is certainty that a particular transaction will reduce the economic benefits of the entity when the entity has transferred the asset, or there is no uncertainty about the transfer of the asset”5.
In addition to this, special rules PBU 9/99 and PBU 10/99 are devoted to determining the facts of economic life that are not related to income and expenses.
According to clause 3 of PBU 9/99, receipts from other legal entities and individuals are not recognized as income of the organization: amounts of value added tax, excise taxes, sales tax, export duties and other similar mandatory payments; under commission agreements, agency and other similar agreements in favor of the committent, principal, etc.; in the order of advance payment for products, goods, works, services; advances on account of payment for products, goods, works, services; deposit; as a pledge, if the agreement provides for the transfer of the pledged property to the pledgee; in repayment of a loan, a loan granted to a borrower.
In accordance with paragraph 3 of PBU 10/99, the disposal of assets is not recognized as an organization's expenses: in connection with the acquisition (creation) of non-current assets (fixed assets, construction in progress, intangible assets, etc.); contributions to the authorized (share) capital of other organizations, the acquisition of shares joint-stock companies and other securities not for the purpose of resale (sale); under commission agreements, agency and other similar agreements in favor of the committent, principal, etc.; in the order of advance payment for inventories and other valuables, works, services; in the form of advances, a deposit in payment for inventories and other valuables, works, services; in repayment of a loan, a loan received by an organization.
When recognizing income and expenses, one should be guided by the assumption of the temporal certainty of the facts of economic activity (accrual method). The temporal certainty of the facts of economic activity as the basis for accounting for income and expenses requires an analysis of each operation of the receipt or disposal of assets, the emergence or extinguishment of obligations in its connection with the indicators of the reporting period, as well as the study of the economic consequences of each operation.
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Introduction
1. Theoretical foundations of accounting and material analysis
1.1 Essence, classification and methods for evaluating materials
1.2 Accounting for materials
1.3 Methodological approaches to the analysis of materials
2. general characteristics activities of OJSC Flax Association named after I.D. Zworykin
2.1 Organizational and economic characteristics of OJSC Flax Association named after. I.D. Zworykin
2.2 Analysis of the financial condition of OAO Flax Association named after I.D. Zworykin
3. Accounting and analysis of materials on the example of OAO Flax Association im. I.D. Zworykin
3.1 Accounting of materials on the example of OJSC Flax Association named after. I.D. Zworykin
3.2 Analysis of the use of materials on the example of JSC "Lnoobedinenie im. I.D. Zworykin
Conclusion
List of used literature
INconducting
Materials are one of the most important factors in ensuring the consistency and continuity of production.
Depending on the type of activity of the organization, they can occupy a significant share in the cost of production.
A comprehensive study, a correct understanding of the essence of stocks of inventory items, their significance and role in the economy of enterprises, is among the most important problems in the economic and rational use of material assets.
For the effective management of the organization, the analysis of materials is of great importance. Violation of the optimal level of residual materials leads to losses in the company's activities, since it increases the cost of storing these materials, diverts liquid funds from circulation, increases the risk of depreciation of materials and a decrease in their consumer qualities, and leads to the loss of customers.
Despite the fact that the company benefits from the tendency to accelerate the turnover of inventory items at the enterprise, and, consequently, the reduction in the size of their stocks, materials play a major role in providing the enterprise with normal rhythmic working conditions.
Materials are one of the objects of accounting of the organization. Each organization inevitably faces the need to record operations with inventories in accounting.
IN economic literature the issues of accounting of materials are widely covered.
The information base of the study was: "Financial newspaper", "New accounting", "Accounting", "New in accounting and reporting", as well as normative documents, as well as internal documentation of the analyzed enterprise for accounting materials.
For the implementation of an accurate and complete reflection in the accounting of an enterprise of operations with materials, it is necessary to be guided by legislative acts RF and other regulatory documents, etc. However, in the system of material reserves of the enterprise, violations and deviations from the current regulations are often encountered.
At present, qualitative indicators, such as a reduction in the unit costs of various types of materials, are of decisive importance. Therefore, it is necessary to eliminate as much as possible the losses and irrational expenses of material assets, which, in particular, may arise with inefficient organization of accounting and control of the use of materials.
Accounting data should contain information to find reserves to reduce the cost of production in terms of the rational use of materials, reduce consumption rates, ensure proper storage of materials and safety.
Improvement of resource saving contributes to streamlining primary documentation, widespread introduction of standard unified forms, increasing the level of mechanization and automation of accounting and computing work, ensuring a strict procedure for the acceptance, storage and consumption of raw materials, materials, semi-finished products, components, fuel, etc., limiting the number of officials who have the right to sign documents for issuance especially scarce and expensive materials.
The main requirement for accounting materials is the efficiency (timeliness) of accounting, which allows you to control the compliance of data warehouse accounting and operational accounting of the movement of materials accounting data.
The efficiency of the enterprise depends on the analysis of materials. Raw materials, material resources, fuel and energy resources are an important part of the country's national wealth.
An analysis of the materials of a single organization makes it possible to identify shortcomings in their management, on the basis of which measures are developed to eliminate these shortcomings.
Analysis of the use of materials in production plays a huge role in the organization of the production process. During the analysis, cases of irrational use of materials in production are identified, based on the data obtained during the analysis, specific management decisions and measures are taken to eliminate deviations from the plan to achieve positive results.
Based on the foregoing, the topic of the thesis is undoubtedly relevant.
The subject of the study of the activity of the work was the problem of accounting and analysis of materials.
The object of study of the thesis is JSC "Flax Association named after. I.D. Zworykin.
The purpose of the thesis is to reveal theoretical basis accounting and analysis of materials and consider practical aspects on the example of OJSC “Lnoobedinenie im. I.D. Zworykin.
The implementation of this goal requires setting the following tasks:
To study the essence, consider the classification and methods for evaluating materials;
Explore the theoretical foundations of accounting;
To study methodical approaches to the analysis of materials;
Give a description of the activities and analyze the financial condition of OJSC “Lnoobedinenie im. I.D. Zworykin
To consider the features of accounting for materials of OJSC “Lnoobedinenie im. I.D. Zworykin";
Conduct an analysis of the materials on the example of JSC Flax Association named after. I.D. Zworykin.
The information base of materials in JSC Flax Association named after. I.D. Zworykin" became: accounting policy for 2009, list of forms of primary documents, workflow schedule for 2009
1 . Ttheoretical foundations of accounting and material analysis
1.1 Cnature, classification and assessment methodsmaterials
Materials are the most important element of inventories. Raw materials and materials are those objects of labor from which a product is made.
The materials used in production are conditionally divided into:
Basic;
Auxiliary.
Basic materials form the material (material) basis of the product for the production of which they are used.
Auxiliary materials are included in the composition of the manufactured product, but unlike the main ones, they do not form its material basis, they are added to the main materials in order to cause the necessary qualitative changes in them, or they are not included materially in the manufactured product, but are consumed by means of labor, or are spent to improve conditions. labor (for example, repair and maintenance of the building and main auxiliary premises). However, auxiliary materials are not always separated into an independent group, which depends on the type of production.
Assets valued within the limit set in accounting policy organizations, but not more than 20,000 rubles per unit, may be reflected in accounting and financial statements as part of inventories. In order to ensure the safety of these objects in production or during operation, the organization must organize proper control over their movement.
In some industries, in the manufacture of products, purchased products and semi-finished products are used along with the main materials.
Purchased products and semi-finished products are materials that have passed certain stages of processing, but are not yet finished products. They also form the material basis of manufactured products. This group includes, as a rule, blanks supplied by other enterprises that are used to complete products or are subjected to additional processing to obtain finished products.
From the group of auxiliary materials, in connection with the peculiarity of use, fuel, containers and packaging materials, etc. are distinguished.
Fuel is divided into technological (for technological purposes), motor (fuel) and household (for heating).
Tare and container materials are items used for packaging, transportation, storage of various materials and products. Containers and packaging materials can be used both once (paper, cardboard) and repeatedly (boxes, bags, etc.).
It should be noted that in some industries waste material resources are generated - the remains of raw materials that have lost their original property (quality) in whole or in part and cannot be used for their intended purpose.
Types of waste at the enterprise are shown in Figure 1.
Rice. 1- Types of enterprise waste
Irrevocable waste is waste that cannot be used by the enterprise or sold to the side. Return waste it is necessary to evaluate - this allows you to reduce the cost of the main production. Depending on the state, such waste is valued differently.
Each enterprise has a large number of different raw materials and materials, so their classification cannot be limited to the system of accounts of synthetic accounting.
A more detailed classification into groups and subgroups according to technical properties or features is needed.
The number of groups and subgroups is determined based on the range of materials and the nature of the manufactured products. However, they should be based on the grouping adopted in the statistical reporting on the movement of materials.
Within each group, materials are subdivided by name, grade, size.
Each type of material is assigned a nomenclature number (code), which is entered in the list called the nomenclature of material assets, and is also indicated on all primary documents on the movement of materials.
To reduce the accounting nomenclature of materials and simplify accounting, materials that are homogeneous and similar in their properties can be combined into one item number. The ciphers are built in such a way that the group of materials, as well as their other features, can be determined by the item number.
In accordance with PBU 5/01 "Accounting for inventory". Materials are accounted for at their actual acquisition cost.
The actual cost consists of the following elements:
Purchase price without VAT;
Surcharge;
Commissions paid to supply organizations;
Customs duties;
Transportation and delivery costs, if third-party transport is used;
Loss of materials in transit within the norms of natural loss;
Travel expenses associated with the procurement of materials.
The accounting department can determine the actual cost of materials only at the end of the month, when all payment documents of material suppliers, as well as documents for transportation and handling operations, are received.
The movement of materials occurs daily, therefore, accounting for materials at actual cost is used by only a small part of enterprises where the number of items of materials is not large.
Most enterprises keep current records of materials at accounting prices (for example, at average purchase prices).
To correctly determine the actual cost of manufactured products, it is necessary to write off materials at actual cost.
Materials written off to production can be evaluated in accordance with PBU 5/01 using the following methods, which are presented in Figure 2.
Rice. 2- Methods for evaluating materials
Thus, the actual unit cost of each type of material consists of the price and transportation and procurement costs.
The application of one of the methods for a specific item is carried out throughout the reporting year.
Each of these methods has its own advantages and disadvantages and is not ideal. During the year, an enterprise cannot arbitrarily change, for market reasons, in order to adjust the financial results of the method of estimating inventories chosen by it when adopting an accounting policy for the coming year.
The method of estimating materials at the actual weighted average cost is traditional for our domestic accounting policy.
When switching to the organization of accounting in accordance with the requirements of international standards, it is provided for when writing off materials for production costs, to evaluate them using the FIFO method. In addition, the implementation of these methods for assessing materials in the practice of domestic enterprises is possible only under the conditions of computerization of accounting for this object.
Let us consider in more detail the above methods for assessing raw materials and materials in Table 1.
Tab. 1 Characteristics of methods for evaluating materials
Method name |
Characteristic |
|
1. According to the actual cost of each unit of materials. |
This method is used in cases where the enterprise has the technical and organizational capabilities to account for purchase prices and other costs for each specific type of material, as well as when it is necessary to clearly identify and ensure their physical and cost movement from the moment of purchase to the moment of consumption. Basically, this method is used in enterprises that produce expensive goods (this is especially true for single-piece production). This is the only method in which the value stream reflected in accounting fully corresponds to the physical flow of the values taken into account. This method can be described as the most labor-intensive. |
|
2. According to the actual weighted average cost. |
In production, where the varietal accounting of inventories is carried out at the actual cost, when they are released into production, for operational, repair needs and other purposes, the expended material resources are estimated at the average cost, which consists of the cost of the remaining materials at the beginning of the month and the cost of their prepared quantity in the reporting month. Determining the average actual cost is quite laborious, because requires preliminary posting in the cards of quantitative and total accounting of materials of data on their last delivery. To calculate the average cost of materials, it is necessary to determine: 1. The mass and cost of the actual quantity of materials of this type that are in the circulation of the enterprise. In this case, the mass of materials is the quantity at the beginning of the month plus the number of materials received per month, and the cost of these materials is the cost of materials remaining at the beginning of the month plus the cost of materials received per month; 2. Average - the actual cost of a unit of a given material as the ratio of the cost of the actual amount of materials to their mass; 3. The actual cost of actually used materials as the product of the average actual cost of a unit of material and the mass of materials actually used per month. Such a calculation must be done for each type of consumed materials. |
|
3. FIFO method |
The essence of the FIFO method is that materials are written off sequentially, in the order they are delivered to the enterprise, according to the principle "first batch in receipt - first in expenditure". When applying this method, materials in stock at the end of the month are valued at the actual cost of the most recent purchases, and the cost of goods sold takes into account the cost of early (first) purchases. According to the technique of organizing the accounting method FIFO write-off produced from the last batches to the first. The organization of accounting by the FIFO method requires the maintenance of total accounting for each batch of material, with tracking of the time of arrival and write-off. Manual accounting requires a lot of effort. When using the FIFO method, it becomes necessary to evaluate each batch of consumables, which is quite difficult to implement in practice. |
So, in this section, we have defined the essence, presented the classification and methods for evaluating materials. It has been established that the materials used in production are divided into basic and auxiliary. The main materials form the material basis of the product, while the auxiliary materials are consumed by means of labor or are spent to improve working conditions. Important in the accounting of materials is their evaluation. The section presents a description of the methods for estimating materials written off to production: at the cost of each unit; weighted average cost and FIFO method.
1.2 Accounting for materials
The main regulatory documents governing the accounting of materials are the Accounting Regulation "Accounting for inventories" PBU 5/01 (approved by order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation dated 09.06.2001 No. 44n), "Guidelines for accounting for inventories" (approved by order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation of December 28, 2001 No. 119n), “Methodological guidelines for accounting for special tools, special devices, special equipment and special clothing” (approved by order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation of December 26, 2002 No. 135n).
These and other regulatory documents have made significant changes to the methodology of accounting for materials.
All operations related to the receipt, movement and issue of materials must be documented primary documents. A rationally developed primary documentation for accounting materials makes it possible to obtain the necessary information for the operational management of the enterprise and to carry out preliminary, current and subsequent control over their use.
Typical intersectoral forms of primary accounting documentation presented in table 2.
Tab. 2 Forms of primary accounting documents.
Primary Document Form |
Name of the primary document |
Characteristic |
||
Power of attorney |
It is used to formalize the right of a person to act as a trustee of an organization upon receipt of material assets released by a supplier under an order, invoice, contract, order, agreement. Form M-2a is used by organizations from which the receipt of material assets by proxy is widespread. |
|||
Receipt order |
It is used to record materials coming from suppliers or from processing. A receipt order in one copy is drawn up by a financially responsible person on the day the valuables arrive at the warehouse. Instead of an incoming order, the acceptance and posting of materials can be formalized by affixing a stamp on the supplier's document (invoice, waybill, etc.), the imprint of which contains the same details as in the incoming order. Such a stamp is equivalent to a receipt order. The procedure for processing documents for the acceptance and posting of materials should be fixed in the accounting policy of the organization. |
|||
Material acceptance certificate |
It is used to register the acceptance of material assets that have a quantitative and qualitative discrepancy, as well as a discrepancy in assortment with the data of the supplier's accompanying documents; is also compiled upon acceptance of materials received without documents. |
|||
Limit-fence card |
It is used if there are limits on the release of materials for registering the release of materials systematically consumed in the manufacture of products, as well as for monitoring compliance with the established limits for the release of materials for production needs. |
|||
Invoice claim |
It is used to account for the movement of material assets within an organization between structural divisions or financially responsible persons. |
|||
Invoice for goods issue per side |
It is used to account for the release of material assets to the farms of its organization located outside its territory, or to third-party organizations, on the basis of contracts and other documents. |
|||
Material accounting card |
It is used to record the movement of materials in the warehouse for each grade, type and size; filled in for each item number of the material and maintained by the financially responsible person (storekeeper, warehouse manager). |
|||
Act on the posting of material assets |
Obtained during the dismantling and dismantling of buildings and structures" is used to register the posting of material assets received during the dismantling and dismantling of buildings and structures suitable for use in the production of work. |
The procedure for documenting the receipt of materials depends on the sources of their receipt, methods of delivery and the place of receipt of products.
The main sources of raw materials and supplies are industrial and agricultural enterprises (direct manufacturers), trade and intermediary organizations, citizens, accountable persons(Procurers) who purchase materials in cash.
Reception of materials is carried out in accordance with the production program of the enterprise on the basis of economic contracts with product suppliers.
Monitoring the implementation of the logistics plan, the timeliness of the receipt and posting of materials is the function of the logistics department. For this purpose, the department maintains a journal of operational accounting of the implementation of supply contracts. It notes the fulfillment of the terms of the supply agreement for the range of materials, their quality, price, shipping time, etc. The accounting department controls the organization of this operational accounting.
Delivery of materials to the enterprise can be carried out both at the initiative of the supplier - centralized delivery, and at the initiative of the enterprise itself - pickup. In all cases, suppliers send settlement and payment documents for shipped materials: invoices, waybills, payment requests, orders, etc. They must be accompanied by documents characterizing both the quantities of materials (packing labels, specifications, waybills, plumb lines), and quality (certificates, quality certificates, etc.).
Documents received from suppliers, after verification and registration in the supply department, in the register of incoming goods, are transferred to the accounting department of the enterprise for payment.
When materials are shipped at the initiative of the supplier by rail, air and water transport, the transport organization notifies the enterprise of the arrival of the cargo at its address.
In order to receive goods, the freight forwarder or another person with whom the manufacturing enterprise has entered into an agreement on liability is issued an order to receive the goods and a power of attorney (M-2), which, as a document of strict accountability, is registered in a special journal.
Cargoes are issued to the representative manufacturing enterprise after presenting them with a power of attorney and invoices for payment for the services of a transport organization. Then he is handed an invoice for receiving the goods from the warehouse of the transport organization. Upon receipt of the cargo, he signs the road manifest and the bill of lading. Previously, the recipient checks the integrity of the seals and prints on them, the condition of the wagon (container), the number of seats and the condition of the packaging of materials.
If damage to the wagon (container) or packaging is found, as well as a shortage in the number of seats, the cargo is checked. Identified shortages and damage to material assets are drawn up by a commercial act in triplicate, on the basis of which a claim is subsequently made to the transport organization. If the shortage does not exceed the limits of natural wastage en route, then this is recorded in the bill of lading.
The freight forwarder delivers the accepted goods to the warehouse of the manufacturing enterprise and hands them over to the manager, who checks the compliance of the quantity and quality of materials with the supplier's invoice data. Accepted materials are issued by receipt orders (M-4). The receipt order is signed by the warehouse manager and forwarder.
If there are no discrepancies between the data of the supplier and the actual data, it is allowed to register the posting of materials without issuing a receipt order. In this case, a stamp is affixed to the supplier's document, the prints of which contain the main details of the receipt order (invoice). The number of primary documents is thus reduced.
In cases where the quantity and quality of the materials arrived at the warehouse do not correspond to the data of the supplier's invoice, the materials are accepted by the commission and draw up an act of acceptance of materials (M-7) in two copies, which serves as the basis for filing claims with the supplier. The commission must include a representative of the supplier or a disinterested organization. The act is also drawn up upon acceptance of materials received by the enterprise without a supplier invoice (non-invoiced deliveries).
With the centralized delivery of materials by road, they are accepted at the warehouse of the manufacturing enterprise. In this case, the supplier issues a bill of lading in four copies: the first one serves as the basis for writing off valuables from the consignor; the second - for posting materials by the recipient; the third - for settlements with a motor transport organization (is an annex to the invoice for payment for the transportation of valuables); the fourth - to account for transport work (attached to the waybill).
The waybill is used as a receipt document for the buyer if there are no discrepancies between the amount of goods received and the data of the waybill. If there is such a discrepancy, an act is drawn up.
Reception of materials is possible directly at the supplier's warehouse (self-delivery). In this case, the representative of the manufacturing enterprise is obliged to present a power of attorney and a document confirming his identity. When dispensing materials, the power of attorney is taken away, and the representative is given the necessary accompanying documents (invoices, waybills, certificates, etc.).
Materials can come from enterprises in other sectors of the economy (trade, procurement, etc.). If the activities of these enterprises are taken into account on the same balance sheet as the production enterprise, then the receipt of materials from them does not require settlement operations; it is issued either by expenditure or receipt invoices (orders).
The receipt of materials of own production, production waste and others at the warehouse of a manufacturing enterprise is documented by invoice requirements. Materials received from the dismantling and dismantling of buildings and structures are accounted for on the basis of an act on the capitalization of material assets received during the dismantling and dismantling of buildings and structures.
Materials from warehouses are released to production workshops for the manufacture of products and for various household needs, as well as for sale to the side.
The procedure for documenting the issue of materials depends, first of all, on the organization of production, the direction of consumption and the frequency of issue.
Release to production refers to the transfer of materials for the manufacture of products, performance of work or provision of services. The issue of materials to storerooms is considered as an internal movement of materials. In the absence of storerooms, the release of materials from central warehouses is considered an expense for production.
The release of materials for production and other needs is drawn up with limit-fence cards, invoice requirements, picking lists, cutting charts, etc.
The limit-fence card (M-8) is issued by the planning department or the supply department in two copies, as a rule, for a period of one month. They indicate: type of operations; number of the warehouse issuing materials; receiving shop; cost code; name and nomenclature number of released materials; a unit of measurement and a limit on the monthly consumption of materials, which is calculated in accordance with the production program for the month and the current consumption rates.
Before the beginning of the month, one copy of the limit-fence card is handed over to the structural unit - the consumer of materials, the second - to the warehouse. The storekeeper notes in both copies the date and quantity of the issued materials, after which he displays the balance of the limit according to the item number of the material and signs in the card of the structural unit - the consumer of materials. The representative of the structural unit signs (in receipt of materials) in the map located in the warehouse.
At the end of the month, both copies of the limit-fence cards are transferred to the accounting department to reflect the consumption of materials on the corresponding accounting accounts.
Limit-fence cards help to strengthen control over the release of materials from the warehouse within the specified limit and drastically reduce the number of one-time documents. However, with the help of such maps it is impossible to control the use of materials directly in production. For this purpose, other documents and methods are used.
Over-limit release of materials into production, as well as a one-time release of valuables within the organization between structural divisions, is documented by invoice requirements. They also draw up operations for the delivery to a warehouse or pantry of the remains of unused materials in production, if they were previously received on demand, as well as the delivery of waste and marriage.
When materials are released to the farms of the enterprise located outside its territory, as well as to third-party organizations, invoices are issued for the release of materials to the side.
At enterprises where specialization and cooperation of production are developed, picking lists can be used when issuing materials. Component parts, as a rule, are released through picking stores, in which these products are pre-selected in an amount corresponding to the production plan. For each of its types, its own statement is issued, according to which components are released throughout the month. This statement indicates the production plan, the name and item numbers of components, their consumption rate per unit of production and the number of sets issued. At the same time, defective parts are replaced by a picking pantry without documentation.
Due to the large number and variety of primary documents, processing the issue of materials requires a lot of time. Therefore, it is important to simplify the accounting in this area.
To reduce the number of primary documents, where possible, it is advisable to register the issue of materials directly in the warehouse accounting cards. In this case, expenditure documents for the release of materials are not issued, and the operation itself is performed on the basis of the established limits. The fact of receipt of the materials is confirmed by the signature of the workshop representative directly in the material inventory card.
In small enterprises, where material responsibility for the safety, movement and use of materials in the warehouse and in the production workshop is assigned to one person, the movement of materials is not documented. Actually used materials by their types are reflected in production acts or reports.
All primary documents on the movement of materials from warehouses and departments of the organization go to the accounting department. It is at this stage of the accounting process that accounting employees are required to exercise effective control over the legality, expediency and correctness of documenting operations on the movement of materials.
Analytical accounting of materials in accounting is carried out on the basis of the use of:
turnover sheets;
balance method.
When using turnover sheets, two options for accounting for materials are used in table 3
Tab. 3 Options for accounting for materials when using turnover sheets.
option number |
Description |
|
1 option |
In accounting, cards are opened for each type and grade of materials analytical accounting, in which they record, on the basis of primary documents, operations for the receipt and consumption of materials. Accounting is kept both in quantitative and monetary terms. At the end of the month, according to the total data of all cards, quantitatively - total turnover sheets of materials for each warehouse and division are compiled. Then a summary turnover sheet is compiled, into which the results of the indicated turnover sheets are transferred for groups of materials, sub-accounts, synthetic accounts. |
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Option 2 |
All receipts and expenditures are grouped by stock numbers and at the end of the month, the final data on the receipt and consumption of each type of material calculated according to the documents are recorded in the turnover sheets, compiled in kind and in monetary terms for each warehouse separately in the context of the corresponding synthetic accounts and subaccounts. After that, consolidated turnover sheets are compiled. In this case, the complexity of accounting is significantly reduced, but accounting remains too cumbersome. |
The balance method of accounting for materials is more progressive. With it, the accounting department does not duplicate warehouse sorting accounting, but uses warehouse accounting cards of materials maintained in warehouses as analytical accounting registers.
The correctness of the warehouse accounting cards is checked by the accounting staff at least once a week and confirms them with their signature. At the end of the month, quantitative data on the balances on the 1st day of the month for each item number from the cards to the balance sheet. The following is a summary balance sheet.
Materials are recorded on account 10 "Materials" at accounting prices. The account is active. The debit of the account reflects the receipt of materials, and the credit of their disposal.
When accounting for materials at accounting prices, the difference between the cost of materials at these prices and the actual cost of acquiring (procuring) materials is reflected in account 16 “Deviation in the cost of materials”.
To account 10 "Materials" the following sub-accounts are opened:
10.1 - raw materials and supplies
10.2 - purchased semi-finished products and components, structures and parts
10.3 - Fuel
10.4 - Containers and packaging materials
10.5 - Spare parts
10.6 - Other materials
10.7 - Materials transferred for processing to the side
10.8 - Construction materials
10.9 - Inventory and household supplies
Depending on the accounting policy adopted by the organization, the receipt of materials can be reflected using accounts 15 “Procurement and acquisition of material assets” and 16 “Deviation in the cost of material assets” or without their use. Therefore, the materials received by the enterprise are taken into account in two ways, which are presented in table 4.
Tab. 4 Reflection of received materials on accounting accounts
postings |
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Using account 10 "Materials" |
Received materials at the warehouse at actual cost |
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Auxiliary production materials are credited |
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Received materials purchased by accountable persons |
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Using accounts 10 "Materials", 15 "Procurement and acquisition of material assets", 16 "Reflection in the cost of material assets" |
Purchased materials at purchase price |
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Reflected the amount of VAT on the purchase price |
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Materials of own production are credited |
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Materials received at book price |
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Capitalized materials received in connection with the disposal of fixed assets |
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Written off the difference between the actual cost of materials and their book price (when the cost is lower than the book price) |
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The difference between the actual cost of materials and their book price (when the cost price exceeds the book price) has been written off. |
In accounting, the following entry is made for the amount of the actual cost of materials written off:
Debit of accounts 20, 23, 25, 26, 28.29, 44.
Account credit 10.
The disposal of materials during their sale, transfer as a contribution to the authorized capital, transfer free of charge is issued an invoice for the release of materials to the party (form No. M-15) and is reflected in account 91 “Other income and expenses”. The debit of this account shows the actual cost of retired valuables, the costs associated with their disposal.
When materials are disposed of, the following postings are made, presented in table 5.
Tab. 5 Reflection of the disposal of materials in the accounts of accounting
Corresponding accounts |
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Materials released into production |
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Materials written off for the needs of the enterprise |
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Written off materials used in the elimination of defects |
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Written off the actual cost of goods sold |
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The actual cost of materials used for the needs of service farms has been written off. |
Material values that do not belong to the organization are accounted for on off-balance accounts. To summarize information on the presence and movement of inventory items accepted for safekeeping, account 002 “Inventory items accepted for safekeeping” is used.
Organizations - buyers take into account inventory items on account 002 in the following cases:
Receipts from suppliers of inventory items for which the organization legal grounds refused to accept invoices for payment requests and their payment;
Receipt from suppliers of unpaid inventory items prohibited for spending under the terms of the contract until they are paid; acceptance of inventory items for safekeeping for other reasons.
Organizations - suppliers take into account on account 002 inventory items paid by buyers, which are left in safe custody, issued with safe receipts, but not exported for reasons beyond the control of organizations. Inventory assets are accounted for on account 002 at the prices specified in the acceptance certificates. Analytical accounting on account 002 is carried out by organization-owners, by types and grades of materials, places of their storage.
Account 003 “Materials accepted for processing” is intended to summarize information on the availability and movement of raw materials and materials of the customer accepted for processing (tolling raw materials) that are not paid by the manufacturer. Accounting for the costs of processing or refining raw materials and materials is carried out on the accounts of accounting for production costs, reflecting the costs associated with this (with the exception of the cost of raw materials and materials of the customer). The customer's raw materials and materials accepted for processing are recorded on account 003 at the prices stipulated in the contracts. Analytical accounting on account 003 is conducted by customers, types, grades of raw materials and materials and their locations.
In the course of the organization's activities, an inventory of its property and liabilities is carried out.
The main objectives of the inventory of materials are:
Identification of the actual presence of property;
Comparison of the actual availability of property with accounting data.
Inventory is subject to production stocks and other types of property that do not belong to the organization, but are listed in accounting, as well as property that is not accounted for for any reason.
In accordance with the Regulations on Accounting and Reporting in the Russian Federation, inventories are mandatory:
When transferring the organization's property for rent, redemption, sale, as well as in cases provided for by law when transforming a state or municipal unitary enterprise;
Before the preparation of annual financial statements, except for property, the inventory of which was carried out no earlier than October 1 of the reporting year. In areas located in the Far North and areas equated to them, an inventory of goods, raw materials and materials can be carried out during the period of their least remaining;
When changing financially responsible persons;
When establishing the facts of theft or abuse, as well as damage to values;
In case of natural disasters, fire, accidents or other emergencies caused by extreme conditions;
In case of liquidation of an organization before drawing up a liquidation balance sheet and in other cases provided for by the legislation of the Russian Federation or regulations of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation.
To conduct an inventory, the names and codes of inventory items are entered in inventory records for each individual item, indicating the type, group, quantity and other necessary data.
Surpluses, shortages found during the inventory are accounted for on the basis of a collation sheet of goods and materials (form No. INV-19) and a receipt order (form No. M-4). In accounting, surpluses and shortages are recorded in the accounts indicated in Table 6.
Tab. 6 Reflection of the inventory of materials on the accounts of accounting
Corresponding accounts |
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Deficiencies and losses detected during inventory |
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Write-off to production costs the cost of missing materials within the norms of natural loss |
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The actual amount of damage is attributed to the guilty person |
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Contributed funds by the guilty person |
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Write-off of the amount of shortages of materials in excess of the norms of natural loss |
From account 94, the cost of missing and damaged materials is written off to the accounts of production and distribution costs (if the losses are within the limits), to the debit of account 73 “Calculations for compensation for material damage” (when specific culprits are identified), to the debit of account 91 “Other income and expenses” (in the absence of specific perpetrators or if the recovery of missing or damaged valuables is denied by the court).
The financial result from operations with materials is determined on account 91 “Other income and expenses” by comparing the turnover of the debit of sub-account 91-2 “Other expenses” and credit 91-1 “Other income”.
So, in this section, we studied the accounting of materials in the organization. The procedure for documenting materials in accounting, reflecting the receipt, write-off and inventory of materials on the accounts of accounting is considered.
1.3 Methodological approaches to the analysis of materials
In the process of analyzing materials, it is important to establish how optimal their volume and structure are, how rational is the system of their financing. In modern conditions, the organization independently solves issues related to attracting and using working capital, as well as optimizing the structure of their sources.
Figure 3 shows the tasks of material use analysis.
Rice. 3- Tasks of material use analysis
The objectives of the analysis of the use of materials are:
Determining the level of provision of an economic entity with the necessary material resources by type, grade, brand, quality and grade of supply;
Analysis of the level of material consumption of products in dynamics;
Study of the effect of individual factors on the change in the level of material consumption of products;
Identification of losses due to forced replacement of materials, as well as downtime of equipment and workers due to lack of materials;
Assessment of the impact of the organization of material and technical supply and the use of material resources on the volume of output and the cost of production;
Identification of unused opportunities to reduce material costs and their impact on production volume.
There are several methodological approaches to the analysis of materials. HELL. Sheremet offers a methodology for analyzing materials at an enterprise, which consists in the following.
To begin with, it is necessary to establish the sources of formation of working capital, these include:
Own sources;
Borrowed sources.
As a rule, the minimum need of an enterprise for working capital is covered by its own sources (profit, authorized capital, reserve capital), additional needs for working capital are covered by attracting borrowed sources.
The main directions of attracting loans for the formation of working capital are:
Lending;
Temporary replenishment of the lack of working capital;
Implementation of settlements and mediation of payment turnover.
The expediency of attracting a particular financial source is determined by comparing the profitability of investments of this type and the cost of this source of capital. There is a financial leverage effect:
R h / C s \u003d R h / K + (R h -SP) C s / C s,
where R h - net profit;
K - all advanced capital (balance sheet currency);
SP - average interest on credits and loans;
Р h / С s - financial profitability;
R h /K - economic profitability;
C s / C s - the ratio of borrowed and equity capital.
The formula for the effect of financial leverage means that financial profitability is usually higher than economic profitability (in terms of net profit).
Calculation of security with own funds of the total value of current assets is important in characterizing the financial position of the enterprise. It is determined by the formula:
K o \u003d (C s + C sd -F) / E \u003d E s / E,
where K o - security factor;
C c - the result of section 3 of the liabilities side of the balance sheet;
C dk - the result of section 4 of the liabilities side of the balance sheet;
F - the result of section 1 of the asset balance;
E with - own working capital;
E - the value of current assets.
Then A.D. Sheremet, proposes to consider a system of indicators of turnover of current assets, as well as the calculation and evaluation of the turnover of private indicators of turnover.
Calculation 1. Determine the dynamics of qualitative indicators of the use of working capital.
Calculation 2. Determine the increase in working capital per 1% increase in production.
Calculation 3. Determine the relative deviation in working capital.
Calculation 4. Determine the effect of intensity and extensiveness in the use of working capital on the increase in production by two methods:
2. integral.
Calculation 5. Determine the impact of the turnover ratio of working capital on the increase in profits.
Calculation 6. Determine the impact of changes in turnover on the increase in the profitability of assets.
L.N. and I.N. The Chuevs argue that the purpose of material analysis is to improve production efficiency through the rational use of resources. For such an analysis, they proposed a number of coefficients. When analyzing the materials of OJSC “Lnoobedinenie im. I.D. Zworykin" we used the method of these authors.
The coefficient of availability of materials and raw materials at the enterprise is calculated as the ratio of actually received materials to their needs according to the norms or plan.
The coefficient is presented in the following formula:
Kob \u003d Pf / Pl,
where Cob - security factor;
Pf - received after the fact;
Pl - planned requirement.
The disproportion of stocks of material resources in relation to the cost of sold goods, products, works, services can be expressed either in excess balances of raw materials, materials and work in progress, or in excess balances of finished products and goods.
In the first case, the relative growth in stocks of raw materials, materials and work in progress may mean an increase in production, trade, etc., which does not yet correspond to the volume of goods, products, works, services sold, or a slowdown in production processes and circulation processes due to technological reasons .
In the second case, the relative growth in stocks of finished products and goods may reflect a decrease in demand for finished products and goods of the enterprise.
The growing demand for materials can be met in an extensive and intensive way.
extensive path Satisfaction of consumers in materials involves the purchase or manufacture of a large number of materials, which leads to an increase in specific material costs. However, the cost of production may decrease if the volume of production is increased or fixed costs are reduced.
intensive path Satisfaction of consumers in materials involves a more economical use of materials in the production process, which ensures a reduction in specific material costs and reduces the cost of production.
To assess the effectiveness of material resources, a system of generalizing and particular indicators is used.
The use of generalizing indicators in the analysis allows you to get a general idea of the level of efficiency in the use of material resources and the reserves for its increase.
The general indicators of the efficiency of the use of material costs include the material consumption of products and material efficiency.
Material output - characterizes the output of products per ruble of material costs, i.e. how much output is produced from 1 ruble of material resources.
Material consumption of products is calculated by the following formula:
Me \u003d M3 / V \u003d 1 / Mo,
where Me - material consumption of products;
MZ - the amount of material costs;
V - proceeds from the sale of products, works, services.
The indicator of material consumption shows the material costs per 1 ruble of manufactured products, the opposite of the indicator of material efficiency.
An increase in the efficiency of the use of material resources leads to a reduction in material costs for the production of products, a decrease in its cost and an increase in profits.
As generalizing indicators of the efficiency of the use of material resources, they also consider the share of material costs in the cost of production, the coefficient of use of materials.
The share of material costs in the cost of production is calculated using the following formula:
where Y is the share of material costs in the cost of production;
S is the cost of production.
The indicator of the share of material costs in the cost of production shows the level of use of material resources, as well as their structure (material consumption of products).
The coefficient of use of materials is calculated as the ratio of actual material costs to material costs according to the plan for the actual output:
Kim \u003d MZf / MZp,
where Kim is the coefficient of use of material resources;
MZf - the amount of actual material costs;
MZp - material costs according to the plan for the actual output.
The coefficient of use of materials shows the level of efficiency of their use, compliance with consumption standards.
An analysis of the availability of materials for an economic entity begins with a comparison of the planned need for materials, taking into account their stocks at the beginning of the year, balances at the end, the need for repairs with data on the actual receipt of materials at the warehouse of the enterprise.
Majority industrial enterprises has a wide range of consumable materials, so the analysis of the supply of materials is carried out according to the most important types, which determine its release. First, an assessment of the material and technical supply is given. The verification of the reality of plans begins with the study of the norms and standards that underlie the growth in demand for materials.
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Accounting is a system of documentary, continuous, continuous monitoring and control over the economic activities of the organization. This formulation was the result of the centuries-old formation of accounting as an economic science.
The development of accounting and its formation as a science was caused by the needs of life, and accounting led to the improvement of writing and mathematics. With the complication of managing, a stable system for calculating and fixing accounting information was required to transfer information. For thousands of years, humanity has used such accounting acquisitions as:
recording numerical and textual information;
natural accounting objects and their meters;
the beginning of summarizing the results of the count;
material carriers of information - documents.
At the same time, there was still no system for collecting, processing and analyzing information. Documents were difficult to classify by nature and purpose in terms of modern record keeping experience.
Documentation of operations was carried out on papyrus, clay shards, wood. They were often made in two or three copies. Accounting documents were considered valuable. They were dated and stored in special vaults, in boxes and baskets, which were tied with straps and sealed. The clay labels indicated: the name of the responsible scribe, the name of the registered objects, an imprint of the seal was put. The so-called inventory accounting arose as an element of simple accounting.
Inventory accounting recorded only the remains of material values in their statics, without reflecting the accounting of the operations themselves for the movement of values. Daily recalculation of property and comparison of the actual availability of valuables with accounting records (inventory) required a significant investment of time and effort. Inventory accounting made it difficult to maneuver and dynamic management of the economy. The problems of reducing the accounting process led to the emergence of income-expenditure (permanent) accounting, which replaced the discontinuous (discrete) inventory. The purpose of accounting was to verify the reliability of the receipt and issuance of material values. Daily elimination of residuals (to initial balance receipts of valuables were added during the day and the amount spent was subtracted) - one of the elements of the method of modern accounting. The technique, consisting in the joint accounting of income and expenditure in one document, was the most important invention, since it made it possible not only to state the presence of valuables at a certain point in time (as inventory accounting did), but to monitor their movement.
The introduction of a measurement standard to compare the value of exchanged items required the invention of a system of measures, weights and coinage. With the advent of money acting as a measurement standard and with the advent of state systems of measure and weight, money becomes an object of accounting. Thanks to the emergence monetary circulation natural economy gradually acquired the features of a commodity economy. Money has become a universal equivalent in exchange and a single cost meter in accounting, i.e., all values began to be evaluated not only in their natural terms, but also uniformly in monetary terms.
The development of money was facilitated by the activities of banks: deposit operations, issuance of loans, guarantees and traditional exchange and exchange of money. The main achievements in bank accounting include accounting for non-cash payments, that is, the transfer of customer funds to their accounts. With the advent of banking accounting, money as an object of accounting merges with accounting for settlements. Customer accounts acquire modern names: income is called debit, and expenses are called credit. A debit is equivalent to the concept - "he owes", and a credit - "he has".
The emphasis is shifting from primary documents to accounting registers (accounts). Three main registers began to be used by accountants:
a memorial book or memorial in which the facts of economic life are recorded daily in chronological order;
a code for the systematic recording of cash accounts and settlements in a value meter;
a code for recording all tangible accounts (wine, livestock, oil, grain, etc.) in physical units.
According to the accounts of the codes, the balance or balance was displayed. Entries in the registers were bilateral in nature: income was recorded on the left, and expenditure on the right, and in a monetary meter.
Using accounts to record transactions with business assets and reflect settlements with individuals and legal entities led to the emergence of simple accounting. Simple accounting made it possible to create a unified accounting system and take control of all the material and monetary resources of an economic entity, as well as its calculations.
In the future, the development of accounting formed two main areas: cameral and simple accounting. Cameral accounting proceeded from the fact that the cash register was recognized as the main object of accounting. Simple bookkeeping involved accounting for property, including cash. The result of management at that time was expressed in the growth of wealth, and not in indirect categories, even as significant as profit.
The development of accounting gave rise to a double (debit-credit) entry. Double entry in a more convenient and complete form reflected the economic process. The system of accounts of simple accounting was replenished with accounts own funds, but material accounts received a monetary value, as a result of which all the facts of economic life began to be reflected twice: on the debit of one account and the credit of another. Double entry proved to be so convenient that it is still the main element of the methodology of modern accounting.
Accounting, according to the Federal Law of November 21, 1996 No. 126-FZ “On Accounting”, is an ordered system for collecting, registering and summarizing information in monetary terms about the property, obligations of the organization and their movement through continuous, continuous and documentary accounting of all economic operations.
Business transactions should be understood as an elementary component economic process. Accounting is kept continuously by all registered legal entities (accounting entities) from the moment the organization was founded until the moment of its liquidation or reorganization. The accounting principles and methodology are the same for all legal entities.
The general methodological management of accounting in the Russian Federation is carried out by the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation, which includes the Department of Accounting and Reporting. Accounting management functions are implemented through the publication of regulations and guidelines that should not contradict Federal laws, Decrees of the President of the Russian Federation and decrees of the Government of the Russian Federation.
Responsibility for the organization of accounting in organizations, compliance with the law in the performance of business operations is borne by the heads of organizations. The head appoints and dismisses the chief accountant, who reports directly to the head. Without the signature of the chief accountant, monetary and settlement documents, financial and credit obligations are considered invalid and should not be accepted for execution. In case of disagreement between the head of the organization and the chief accountant on the implementation of certain business transactions, documents on them can be accepted for execution from a written order of the head of the organization, who bears full responsibility for the consequences of such operations. The correctness of accounting data is checked during audits and documentary audits.
Accounting is a part of economic science, has its own theory, subject and method, and is closely related to other types of economic accounting (operational and statistical).
Operational accounting is used to quickly obtain information that is necessary for the current management of the enterprise
tie and its subdivisions.
Statistical accounting is used to obtain and generalize data characterizing mass and individual typical phenomena and processes of production activity and social life.
Accounting creates an information system that operates with data on the facts of economic life. It is a comprehensive and most reliable type of accounting, since from the moment the organization was created, throughout its activities, a continuous reflection of all the facts of economic life is continuously conducted in chronological order on the basis of primary accounting documents. Accounting represents quantitative information and differs in that it operates with data only in monetary units measurements, although, if necessary, to clarify monetary information, non-monetary information is used, expressed in natural and labor indicators.
All three types of economic accounting are interconnected. Their function is to organize sound management of economic entities.
Article 1 of the Federal Law "On Accounting" defines the tasks of accounting:
formation of complete and reliable information about the activities of the organization and its property status required by internal users of financial statements: managers, founders, participants and owners of the organization's property, as well as external ones: investors, creditors and other users of financial statements;
providing information necessary for internal and external users of financial statements to monitor compliance with the legislation of the Russian Federation when the organization carries out business operations and their expediency, the presence and movement of property and obligations, the use of material, labor and financial resources;
prevention of negative results of economic activities of the organization and identification of intra-economic reserves to ensure its financial stability.
In the management system, accounting performs the following functions:
ensuring the safety of the property of the owners;
control as a means of ensuring effective management of an economic entity;
calculation of financial results (profit or loss);
informational.
The financial statements of organizations are of interest to a wide range of users: external and internal.
The internal users of financial and management accounting reporting include: the top management of the organization, as well as managers of the appropriate levels who are responsible for management decisions. Internal users of accounting information are the owners of the organization (general partners, shareholders, limited partners, shareholders, etc.). Owners need accounting information to assess the financial prospects of the organization in the future and the possibility of receiving income in the form of dividends. Also, internal users include employees of the organization who are interested in reporting data in terms of their salary level and job prospects in this enterprise.
External users operate outside the enterprises and can be divided into the following subgroups: users with direct financial interest, users with indirect financial interest, users without financial interest.
Users with a direct financial interest are real and potential investors and lenders, as well as lending banks, which, on the basis of reporting information, develop the conditions for providing loans and credits, determine the likelihood of repayment of loans, and assess the credibility of the organization as a client. The subject of analysis of this group is the financial position of the organization, the financial results of its work, the liquidity of the balance sheet.
Users with indirect financial interest are represented primarily by tax and financial authorities, who are interested in the correctness of financial reporting and, most importantly, the calculation of taxes and their timely receipt in the budget. This group also includes servicing banks And insurance organizations who are concerned about the assessment of the possibility of concluding agreements on settlement operations and insurance. Suppliers and buyers are included in this group, as they must have information about the prospects for the operation of the enterprise.
The group of users of accounting information without a financial interest includes statistical agencies, arbitration and audit firms. Users of this group are interested in financial statements in order to verify the legitimacy and legality of transactions (arbitration, audit firms) or in order to obtain statistical information for economic analysis. Users without financial interest also include legislatures, stock exchanges, press and news agencies who use reporting information to prepare reviews, assess development trends and analyze the activities of individual companies; lawyers who need financial information to evaluate contract performance, compliance with profit distribution and dividend distribution laws, and to determine retirement plans; financial advisors who use accounting information to advise their clients on how to invest their capital in one or another company.
The legislation of the Russian Federation for the organization of the accounting process consists of four levels:
Level 1 - Codes, Federal Laws, Decrees of the President of the Russian Federation and Decrees of the Government of the Russian Federation on accounting issues;
Level 2 - Regulations on accounting;
Level 3 - guidelines, instructions, recommendations and other similar documents;
Level 4 - working documents of a particular organization.
The Federal Law "On Accounting" applies to all organizations located on the territory of the Russian Federation, registered as a legal entity in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation. Rules contained in other federal laws and affecting the issues of accounting and financial reporting, must comply with this Federal Law.
The documents of the second level include provisions on accounting and are approved by the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation. Such provisions regulate the principles and rules for accounting for individual objects of accounting supervision, which constitute a system of national standards focused on International Financial Reporting Standards. Currently, the system of national accounting standards - regulations includes 20 provisions.
Third level documents are prepared and approved by federal agencies, ministries and other executive authorities, professional associations of accountants on the basis and in the development of documents of the first and second levels. The documents of the third level include charts of accounts for the financial and economic activities of organizations and instructions for their use, which form the basis for organizing accounting at all enterprises, regardless of subordination, ownership, organizational and legal form.
Documents of the fourth level are approved by the head of the organization. They contain, taking into account the specifics of business conditions, industry affiliation, structure, size of the organization and other factors, internal regulatory accounting documents of the organization that are mandatory for this organization and form the accounting policy of the organization.
Certain principles underlie the development of specific accounting rules enshrined in standards, instructions, and regulations. A principle is the starting position of any theory or doctrine. There are only two fundamental principles for accounting: business unit principles And monetary dimension and a number of procedural principles related to the processing of accounting observation data (Table 1).
Table 1
Procedural principles
Document without a title
Principle |
Conditions for the functioning of the principle |
Continuity |
The valuation of assets (property) is based on the premise that the enterprise will continue to operate (i.e., it is not on the verge of closing). This principle is very important: many assets have value only insofar as they are used by the enterprise, and in the event of liquidation, the sale price of these assets can be much less than their book value. |
Materiality |
Determines that special attention should be paid to taking into account only that information, the absence or inaccuracy of which may affect the calculation of the financial result or the decision of users |
Dualities |
Substantiates the fundamental accounting equation that links the property of an enterprise (assets) with the sources of its formation (owner's capital and borrowed capital) |
Continuity |
Accounting is kept continuously from the moment of organization of the enterprise until its liquidation, without any omissions and flaws. Accounting supervision is continuous and continuous. Continuous observation implies coverage of all accounting objects |
Sequences |
It assumes that the selected accounting methodology at the enterprise will be used for a long period of time, which will ensure the comparability of the financial results of the organization's activities for reporting periods |
Periodicity |
Is it expressed in the practice of the annual accounting cycle and states that the financial result is calculated for certain periods of time? month, quarter, year. The roots of the principle of periodicity lie in the idea of control |
Costs |
The accountant defines the value of an asset as the cost of acquiring it, not the value of the expected return on its use. |
accruals |
Distinguishes between the receipt of cash and the right to receive it, between the payment of cash and the legal obligation to pay it, because in practice there is usually no coincidence in time between the movement of cash and the legal obligations to which they relate. According to this principle, the facts of economic activity refer to the reporting period in which they took place, regardless of the actual time of receipt or payment of funds associated with these facts. |
Correspondence |
Connects revenues with corresponding expenses to calculate the financial result. The conformity principle suggests that expenses should be reflected in the reporting period in which income arose that became possible due to these expenses. |
Accounting |
An accountant, faced with different valuation methods, is more likely to choose the lowest valuation for assets and income and the highest valuation for liabilities and expenses. |
Business Unit Principle or the principle of property isolation of the organization proclaims the legal independence of the economic entity in relation to its owner. This principle allows you to identify the territory, property, bank accounts, external and internal relations. In accordance with this principle, financial and accounting information refers only to the activities of an economic unit (organization), but not to the activities of its owners.
According to principle of monetary measurement only information that is expressed in money is subject to accounting. Money is the only practically convenient unit of measurement that allows obtaining comparable financial data on various objects of accounting supervision.
Like any science - accounting has a subject and method, there are objects of accounting supervision.
The subject of accounting are:
the property of the enterprise (i.e., economic assets) and the sources of its formation (own and borrowed capital);
the movement of property and the sources of its formation (i.e., ongoing business transactions);
financial results of the enterprise (profit or loss).
A business transaction characterizes individual economic actions (facts) that cause changes in the composition, location of property and / or sources of its formation.
The property of the organization (economic assets or assets) is classified as ( fig. 1):
long-term and current (non-current and current);
material and intangible;
monetary and non-monetary, etc.
By time beneficial use assets are divided into long-term (non-current) and current (current). Non-current assets are considered assets, the useful properties of which are expected to be used for more than a year, as a rule, for several years. Current (current) assets mean assets whose useful properties are consumed either in one production cycle or within a period not exceeding one year. Non-current assets include fixed assets, capital and long-term financial investments, intangible assets. All other types of assets are current or current.
The assets of the enterprise, depending on the role they perform in the production, economic and financial activities, it is customary to classify according to composition and location. Fixed assets - a part of property used as means of labor in the production of products, performance of work or provision of services, or for the management of an organization for a period exceeding 12 months. Fixed assets are used in economic activities for a long time, retaining their natural form, wear out gradually, which allows the enterprise to include their cost in the cost of products (works, services) in parts - by depreciation. Depreciation is a systematic process of paying off the cost of an object in the process of depreciation by transferring this value to the product (work, service) produced. Depreciation is understood as the gradual loss of an object's use value. Distinguish between physical and moral depreciation.
Capital investments can be divided into related and non-fixed assets.
Fixed assets include capital investments for radical land improvement (drainage, irrigation and other reclamation works), capital investments in leased fixed assets, capital investments in perennial plantings. Capital investments in the costs of construction of fixed assets (construction in progress), as well as the costs of acquiring individual items of intangible assets, fixed assets, equipment handed over for installation or to be installed are accounted for separately from fixed assets.
Intangible assets are objects of long-term investment (over 12 months) that do not have a material structure, but have a valuation and the ability to bring income to the organization in the future. The cost of intangible assets is repaid by depreciation.
Financial investments include investments in authorized capital and securities other organizations, the cost of acquiring government securities, funds provided on loans. Financial investments are divided into long-term (over 12 months) and short-term (up to 12 months). Long-term financial investments are aimed at achieving financial control over the organization in which investments are made, or ensuring stable income for a long time. Financial investments are not spent and their value is not distributed over periods (not depreciated).
Current assets are usually subdivided into working capital involved in the production process and circulation funds involved in the circulation process. The circulation process involves the sale of products, the purchase of inventories, the storage of money in bank accounts, etc.
Inventories are objects of labor that, together with the means of labor and labor, provide the production process of an enterprise, in which they are used once during one production cycle and immediately transfer their value to the cost of production. Production stocks include raw materials and basic materials, auxiliary materials, purchased semi-finished products and components, returnable materials (waste), containers, fuel, spare parts, low-value items.
Work in progress - products that have not passed all the stages provided for by the technological process, as well as incomplete products that have not passed testing and technical acceptance.
Deferred expenses are certain current assets of an intangible nature, the usefulness of which will end in the foreseeable future (prepaid rent, subscription to newspapers and magazines, separate costs associated with the development of production and training, etc.).
Finished products - part of the organization's inventory, intended for sale, completed by processing (picking), which is the end result of the production process, technical and quality characteristics which comply with the terms of the contract.
Goods - part of the organization's inventory, purchased from other legal entities or individuals and intended for sale without additional processing. Goods belong to circulation funds.
Goods shipped - are finished products or goods shipped from a warehouse or workshop, the proceeds from the sale of which cannot be recognized in accounting for a certain time.
Cash - financial resources in the cash desk of the enterprise, in bank accounts.
Funds in settlements or receivables arise as a result of the sale of finished products, goods and services to buyers without advance payment on the terms of repayment of the debt by the buyer within the agreed time frame. Accounts receivable include advances paid. Advances issued are funds that will soon turn into tangible or intangible assets, services received or, if the supplier fails to fulfill contractual obligations, will be returned in the form of cash to a bank account or to the cash desk of the enterprise.
Diverted assets - the amount of funds irretrievably withdrawn from profit (payments to the budget in the form of taxes, funds directed to the payment of income (dividends) to the participants of the enterprise, deductions for charitable purposes). A variety of abstract assets are losses. Their presence characterizes direct losses, the result of inefficient management of the organization.
Under the sources of formation of property - liabilities - understand the capital, liabilities, accounts payable, funds, reserves, profit. The grouping of liabilities (classification of property by sources of formation) is shown in fig. 2.
The capital advanced by the owner (share capital, authorized capital, authorized fund, share fund, etc.) is the main source of the enterprise's own funds. It can be nested and declared. The invested authorized capital is the total value of the contributions of the owners of the enterprise (cash or financial investments, fixed assets, intangible assets, inventories, etc.). The declared authorized capital is formed in those cases when the capital is not actually contributed, but only declared. Participants (owners) of the organization will have to make it in accordance with the terms specified in the memorandum of association.
Target financing is a specific source of the organization's own funds. Target financing - sources of funds received from other organizations or individuals, as well as from the budget, intended for the implementation of targeted activities. Targeted funding, misused or not used at all, is transformed from a source of own funds into a source of borrowed funds (obligation subject to return).
due to the increase in the value of property of assets identified as a result of their revaluation;
at the expense of share premium (the amount of excess of the sale value of the company's shares over their nominal value). Share premium is considered as a reserve created to cover possible losses in the sale ordinary shares below par value.
The reinvested (earned) capital of the owner is formed from the profit received from the results of production, economic and financial activities. Profit is the excess of income over expenses of the organization. Accordingly, the loss is the excess of expenses over the income of the organization. Profit and loss - the financial results of the financial and economic activities of the organization.
At the expense of profits are formed: reserve capital and accumulation fund, reserves for the depreciation of investments in securities, reserves for doubtful debts. Part of the profit is retained (capitalized) profit of previous years.
The reserve capital is intended to cover unforeseen losses and losses of the reporting year, as well as to pay dividends to shareholders holding preferred shares in case of insufficient profit, as well as to redeem the bonds of the joint-stock company.
Provisions for depreciation of investments in securities serve to cover losses in the event of a fall in the price of securities.
Allowances for doubtful debts are used to compensate for losses in the event that it is impossible to recover from the debtor the amounts due to the enterprise. Doubtful debt is the accounts receivable of the organization, which is not repaid within the terms established by the contracts, and is not secured by appropriate guarantees.
Borrowed sources of property are credits and loans and accounts payable. Borrowed (attracted) capital is formed at the expense of obligations to second and third parties - lenders. Borrowed capital is considered long-term if it is calculated for a maturity of more than one year from the date of its registration in accounting. Short-term borrowed capital includes liabilities with a maturity of up to one year.
Credit issued credit institution(bank). These are bank loans to be repaid on the date specified in loan agreement term for a certain fee (percentage).
The loan is provided to the organization by legal entities that do not have a license to banking, or individuals.
Accounts payable- indebtedness (obligations) of the organization to legal entities or individuals. The creditor is the one to whom the enterprise owes. Therefore, accounts payable are borrowed sources formed from funds provided to the enterprise by third parties.
Settlements with suppliers and contractors are accounted for in the form of invoices issued by suppliers for products shipped to the enterprise and bills of exchange issued to suppliers. In the first case, the supplier ships products to the organization and issues invoices for payment. The fact of payment has not yet occurred. The supplier becomes a creditor of the organization, which is forming accounts payable.
Many organizations prefer to combine the shipment of goods and the provision of services with their parallel payment. In such cases, advance payment is common. The seller receives an advance payment from the buyer, who needs to deliver the goods or provide the service in the near future. From the moment of receipt of funds to the settlement account and until the moment of shipment, the seller becomes the debtor of the buyer. And the advances received are a kind accounts payable.
Wages are an obligation (debt) of the organization to the staff, since there is almost always a gap in time between the moment of accrual and payment of wages. Until the moment of issuance of wages, it is accounted for as accounts payable of the organization.
The debt to the budget arises in connection with the gap in the time of accrual of taxes and fees (ie, their calculation and attribution to costs or indication of the source of their payment) and their payment. Taxes are calculated before payment. Thus, accounts payable to the budget for taxes and fees are also considered as a short-term source of funds raised.
Obligations to the founders to pay dividends arise due to a time gap between the fact of accrual of dividends to owners and the moment of repayment of this debt.
Deferred income, or deferred income: cash received in advance, repayment of debts on which it is expected to ship finished products to buyers, as well as perform work and services for customers over several adjacent periods in the future.
Reserves for future expenses and payments are created for the upcoming payment of vacations to employees, payment for the repair of fixed assets, for warranty repairs and warranty service. These reserves are debts to the organization's personnel, repair contractors, as well as to buyers for warranty obligations. Until the moment of spending the reserves of future expenses and payments, they are involved in the economic turnover of the organization and act as short-term accounts payable.
The accounting methods include: grouping and evaluating the facts of economic activity, paying off the value of assets, organizing workflow, inventory; ways of using accounting accounts, systems of accounting registers, information processing. The set of rules and techniques by which accounting problems are solved - accounting method.
The main elements of the accounting method:
calculation;
accounting accounts;
double entry;
balance generalization;
financial statements.
documentation;
inventory;
Documentation- a method of primary reflection of completed business transactions, registration of each business transaction with primary documents. With the help of documentation, a continuous reflection of business transactions at the time and place of their commission is made.
Inventory - a way to check the compliance of the actual availability of funds and sources of their formation with accounting data. Inventory objects are: all property of the organization and all types of financial obligations.
Evaluation is a way of expressing accounting objects in a generalized monetary meter. The purpose of the assessment is to determine the actual cost of a fait accompli. Calculation is considered to be a kind of evaluation.
Calculation - a way of grouping costs and calculating the cost of a unit of production based on accounting.
Accounting accounts- a method of economic grouping of objects of observation, which allows to reflect not only the initial and final state, but also the changes in the objects of accounting as a result of completed business transactions. Accounts are opened for each type of asset and each type of liability. Accounting accounts are the most important element of the accounting information system, a tool for its modeling.
Double entry is a method of reflecting business transactions in the system of accounting accounts. With double entry, the amount of a business transaction is recorded twice: on the debit of one account and the credit of another.
Balance generalization- grouping economic assets and their sources according to economic content on a certain date. The balance allows you to compare the assets and liabilities of the organization, calculated in value terms. The balance equation contrasts the economic content of accounting (what is taken into account) and its legal aspect (due to what sources the organization acquired property). Both estimates are presented in the balance sheet in equal amounts.
Financial statements is a system of indicators that reflects the position of the organization on reporting date, as well as the financial results of its activities for the reporting period. Using financial statements, the management of the organization develops tactics and strategy financial development- evaluates possible risks entrepreneurship, seeks ways to improve the efficiency of production and financial investments, chooses the most attractive credit policy.
Let us dwell in more detail on the accounts of accounting and their structure. The account is the most important element of the accounting information system. Accounting accounts are opened for each type of asset and liability. Each account has a name (name) and a code (number, cipher) indicating the type of accounted object. Accounting accounts are designed to reflect on them all current changes in the state of the property of the enterprise and the sources of its formation under the influence of business operations. It is in the accounts that business transactions are recorded.
Accounting account- this is a local system, in the process of formation of which, under the influence of business operations, accounting, current and subsequent control over the presence and movement of an economically homogeneous object is carried out.
The movement of each accounting object occurs only in two directions: upwards and downwards. Therefore, in order to separately reflect the increase and decrease in the accounting object, the account is divided into two parts in the form of a two-sided table. The left side of it is called "debit", and the right side is called "credit". At the beginning of the table, the code and name of the account is given (Fig. 3). The sum of the total records of all business transactions in the debit of the account is usually called the debit turnover or debit turnover. The sum of the total records of all business transactions on the credit of the account is called the credit turnover or credit turnover. The balance or account balance indicates the presence of an accounting object at a certain point in time (at the beginning of the day, on the first day of the month, quarter). There is an opening and closing balance or remainder.
Opening balance (balance) for a specific account is equal to the sum the corresponding article (line) of the balance sheet at the beginning of the reporting period, and the final balance (balance) is derived by calculation and transferred to the balance sheet at the end of the reporting period. Accounting actions to select from the balance of data characterizing the object of observation at the beginning of the reporting period, and transfer them as an opening balance to accounting accounts are called opening an account.
Depending on the receipt of data on the means or sources of their formation, accounting accounts are divided into active and passive.
Active accounts are accounts that keep records of the funds (property, assets) of the enterprise. Active accounts are opened on the basis of balance asset items. In an active account, the balance or balance is always reflected in the debit. The receipt of funds in the organization (increase in the active account) is reflected in the debit, and the outflow of funds (decrease in the active account) is reflected in the credit. On fig. 4 shows the scheme for determining the balance for active accounts.
An increase in the value in the credit of the active account leads to a decrease in the value in the debit of the account. The active account on the debit (left) side reflects the initial and final balance, operations to increase the funds of the enterprise, and on the credit (right) side - operations reflecting the decrease in funds. A credit balance in an active account indicates a mistake.
Passive accounts are accounts on which records are kept of the sources of formation of the enterprise's property (liabilities). Passive accounts are opened on the basis of balance sheet liabilities. In a passive account, the balance or balance is always reflected in credit. A debit balance in a passive account indicates a mistake. An increase in the organization's source of funds (an increase in the passive account) is shown as a credit, and a decrease in the source of funds (a decrease in the passive account) is shown as a debit. An increase in the value in the debit of a passive account leads to a decrease in the value in the credit of the account. The passive account on the credit (right) side reflects the initial and final balance, operations to increase the sources of property of the enterprise, and on the debit (left) side - operations that reflect a decrease in the sources of property formation.
The location of the balance (in the debit or credit of the account) depends on the location of the accounting object in the balance sheet. Assets are located on the left side of the balance sheet, therefore, the balance of the asset accounts (and the corresponding increase) should be placed on the left side of the account, or debit. For liabilities, the picture is reversed: liabilities are on the right side of the balance sheet, therefore, the balance of the liabilities accounts (and the corresponding increase) should be placed on the right side of the account, or on the loan. On fig. 5 shows the scheme for determining the balance for passive accounts.
Apply following rules records of business transactions:
an entry on the same side of the account (left or right), on which this account is placed in the balance sheet, increases the account balance;
an entry on the side (left or right) opposite to that on which the account is placed in the balance sheet reduces the balance of the account.
In addition to accounts with a debit or credit (one) balance, accounting uses accounts that have two balances: on debit and credit at the same time. Such accounts are called active-passive. On active-passive accounts, two objects are taken into account: one refers to assets, the other to liabilities. The name of active-passive accounts in accounting usually begins with the word "Calculations ..."
Active-passive accounts have two balances at the same time. Accounts have an "open balance". In terms of the formation of receivables, these accounts work as active, while in the formation of accounts payable - as passive. Therefore, when compiling a balance sheet, the debit balance is shown in the asset, and the credit balance is shown in the liabilities side of the balance sheet.
Active, passive and active-passive accounts are usually called balance accounts, since they correspond to the items of the asset and liability of the balance sheet.
Business transactions in accounting accounts are recorded using double entry. Double entry is a method of reflecting the amount of a separate business transaction on at least two interrelated accounts: on the debit of one and the credit of another account.
Accounts affected in one business transaction by the double entry method are called offsetting accounts, and the relationship between the accounts is called correspondence accounts. If there is no such connection between the accounts, then it is customary to say about such accounts that they are not corresponding. The very record of a business transaction on the accounts of accounting or, in other words, an indication of the correspondence of accounts is called accounting entry or accounting entry.
With the help of double entry, the amount of each business transaction is reflected twice: on the debit of one account and the credit of another. In this case, the totals of the debit turnovers of all accounts will be equal to the credit turnovers of all accounts. The absence of such equality indicates a mistake. This is the control value of the double entry.
All accounting accounts are grouped into a single list containing the names and codes of accounts. It is called Chart of Accounts and is a systematized list of accounting accounts, which is based on the classification of accounts by economic content.
The instructions for using the Chart of Accounts provide a brief description of accounts, their structure and purpose, the economic content of the facts generalized on them, the accounting procedure for the most common operations are disclosed, and standard schemes for the correspondence of accounts are also proposed.
In the Russian Federation, for use by all business entities (except for credit and budget organizations) a single Chart of Accounts is proposed. It contains the names and codes of accounts. The account names identify the items that are accounted for, and the account codes are intended to make it easier to find the account in accounting registers(records).
The chart of accounts is a strictly hierarchical structure, which is based on synthetic accounts(accounts of the first order) and sub-accounts (accounts of the second order). Synthetic accounts are on the left, sub-accounts are on the right. Sub-accounts detail information about the accounted object.
Users on the basis of a single Chart of Accounts form Working Chart of Accounts indicating only those accounts that are necessary to account for the objects of observation available to the organization. The maintenance of synthetic accounts and the indication of their numbering are strictly mandatory, however, the use of sub-accounts in the current accounting does not provide for such strict regulation. The working chart of accounts is reflected in the accounting policy. Under accounting policy organization is understood as the set of accounting methods adopted by it - primary observation, cost measurement, current grouping and final generalization of the facts of economic activity.
The modern Chart of Accounts is divided into eight sections, uniting 60 synthetic accounts:
Section I. Non-current assets.
Section II. Productive reserves.
Section III. Production costs.
Section IV. Finished products and goods.
Section V. Cash.
Section VI. Calculations.
Section VII. Capital.
Section VIII. Financial results.
The division of the Chart of Accounts into sections is based on economic classification accounting objects. Each section reflects economically homogeneous types of property, liabilities, funds, reserves and financial and economic processes. All synthetic accounts of eight sections are involved in the balance sheet, so they are called balance sheets. Balance sheet accounts are kept on the principle of double entry.
A separate group is off-balance sheet accounts, consisting of 11 accounts. If in the economic activity of the organization there are accounting objects that do not affect the balance sheet indicators, but the impact of which is reflected in the results of functioning, then these objects are accounted for on off-balance accounts. Accounting on off-balance accounts is carried out using a single entry (simple entry).
Using the Chart of Accounts, users make accounting entries. Depending on the number of accounts involved in correspondence, simple and complex accounting entries are distinguished. IN simple postings only two accounts are involved. IN complex wiring More than two accounts are involved. In this case, one account is debited (credited), and the others (corresponding with it) are credited (debited) for partial amounts, resulting in the same total amount.
From the point of view of detailing information, accounting accounts are divided into synthetic and analytical. On synthetic accounts, the objects of accounting supervision are reflected in a generalized form in a monetary meter. Analytical accounts detail the generalized indicators of synthetic accounts, specify the objects taken into account.
Consolidated and more detailed information necessary for business management. Accounting carried out on synthetic and analytical accounts is called synthetic and analytical, respectively.
Synthetic accounts can be simple or complex. The indicators of simple synthetic accounts are not subject to further detailing; analytical records are not kept in their development.
Sub-accounts can be opened for complex synthetic accounts, which are second-order accounts. In the Chart of Accounts, they are located on the right.
On sub-accounts, as well as on synthetic accounts, accounting is kept in monetary terms. Sub-accounts are not analytical accounts, they detail the synthetic account, breaking it into economically homogeneous groups, that is, a sub-account is a way of grouping analytical accounts. The list of sub-accounts is not strictly mandatory. It indicates only the directions in which the analytical accounting data should be grouped.
Indicators of complex synthetic accounts, when necessary, find their detail in analytical accounting. Analytical accounts use three types of meters: natural, labor and monetary (value). Natural meters are designed to account for objects in their natural-material form. The choice of a meter of this type depends on the physical properties of the objects taken into account: pieces, meters, kg, liters, etc.
Labor meters are designed to account for labor costs in man-days, man-hours and are used in accounting to calculate the remuneration of employees. Labor costs are recorded in timesheets.
The monetary meter is generalizing, the basis of its calculation are labor and natural meters.
Analytical accounting is inextricably linked with synthetic accounting. Universal cost (monetary) meter allows you to compare and summarize the various objects of accounting supervision. Entries in analytical accounting are made on the basis of primary accounting documents (invoices, receipt orders, acceptance and delivery certificates, production acts, etc.), and entries in synthetic accounts are made on the basis of a set of analytical accounts opened in the context of a synthetic account. This means that the totals of the analytical accounts must be equal to the totals of the synthetic account that combines them.
Before reporting, all accounting information is summarized first on analytical accounts (turnovers are calculated, balances are displayed), and then synthetic accounts are formed based on the aggregate indicators of analytical accounts.
Synthetic and analytical accounting data are always related by the following equalities:
the sum of the balance at the beginning (end) of the month on analytical accounts is equal to the balance at the beginning (end) of the month on the synthetic account that unites them;
the sum of monthly turnovers (by debit or credit) of analytical accounts is equal to the sum of monthly turnovers (respectively, debit or credit) of the synthetic account that combines them.
Violation of these equalities indicates an error. There are two types of turnover sheets for analytical accounts:
quantitative-sum, in which natural and cost indicators are used;
contractual, in which only the cost indicator is used.
Quantitative-sum statements are compiled: for inventories, for finished products, for fixed assets and other property accounts. Checklists are compiled: for settlement accounts, for money, on stock, etc. accounts. Turnover statements for analytical accounting accounts are compiled separately for each synthetic account, in the context of which analytical accounting is maintained.
Depending on the form of accounting, accounting entries are recorded in various accounting registers (systematic, chronological, combined, synchronous). In the classic accounting procedure, accounting entries are transferred to Journal of registration of business transactions(Table 2). This is a chronological accounting register, i.e., all facts of economic life are recorded in the journal as they arise in chronological order. The journal reflects the number of the business transaction in order, the date of the transaction, the content of the business transaction, the accounting entry (correspondence of accounts) and the amount. Moreover, the amount in the journal can be recorded once - the total amount for the accounting entry, and if necessary, to reflect the analytical content of the total amount - private amounts are provided.
table 2
Journal of registration of business transactions
Document without a title
Accounting |
Amount, rub. |
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debit account |
credit |
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At the end of the reporting period, for all entries registered in the journal, the total turnover is calculated in the column "Total amount", which is an important control value when comparing the results of processing accounting data.
At the end of the reporting period, debit and credit turnovers are calculated for each account and preliminary balances are displayed. Accounting activities performed on accounts belong to the General Ledger stage.
General ledger - a set of accounting accounts opened by the organization during the reporting period; the main part of the accounting information system, which reflects all objects of accounting supervision. The general ledger is a synthetic accounting register - it is a systematic accounting register and is opened for a year. It displays the turnover on the accounts and calculates the final balance (Table 3). Entries in the General Ledger begin with the account balance. On the left side of the General Ledger, the debit of the account in question is reflected in correspondence with the credit of the accounts corresponding to it, and on the right side - the credit turnover of the account in question.
Table 3
main book
Account No. “………………………….....”
Document without a title
To the debit of the account ______ from the credit of the accounts |
Total |
turnover |
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Remaining on 1.01. ……G. |
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……………. |
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At the end of the reporting period, turnovers are displayed in the penultimate line and the balance is shown in the last line (for an active account - in the "Total" column on the left, for a passive account - in the "Total" column on the right). Non-balance accounts are closed, their debit and credit turnovers are necessarily equal, there is no balance.
After filling in the accounts of the General Ledger, the next stage of the accounting procedure begins - drawing up a trial balance in the form turnover sheet. The statement is simple and chess-shaped. Simple turnover sheet according to synthetic accounts is called the balance sheet (Table 4).
The balance sheet contains a list of all synthetic accounts of the Working Chart of Accounts. A separate line is assigned to each account, which indicates the opening balance, monthly turnover and the ending balance for this synthetic account. This sheet has three pairs of columns. At proper management accounting, pairwise equality of the results of these columns must be achieved, namely: the total of debit opening balances must be equal to the total of credit opening balances, the total of debit turnovers on synthetic accounts - the total of credit turnovers on synthetic accounts, the total of ending debit balances - the total of ending credit balances.
Table 4
Turnover sheet for accounting accounts
The equality of the totals of the debit and credit balances of the accounts is due to the fact that the total of the debit balances of the accounts shows the monetary value of the property (assets) of the enterprise, and the total of the credit balances shows the monetary value of the sources of property (liabilities) of the enterprise. The equality of the totals of debit and credit turnovers on accounts follows from the essence of double entry, in which each business transaction is reflected both in debit and credit of accounts in the same amounts.
Pairwise equality of the results of the balance sheet has a control value. The lack of such equality indicates the presence of errors in the accounts that need to be found and corrected. The data of the balance sheet are used in the preparation of the balance sheet.
The turnover sheet for synthetic chess accounts (Table 5) is built as follows.
Synthetic account numbers are written horizontally and vertically. Then, in accordance with the correspondence of accounts, the amounts that are reflected at the intersection of the corresponding rows and columns are transferred from the Journal of registration of business transactions to the matrix in accordance with the correspondence of accounts. Debit turnovers are collected in a row, and credit turnovers in a column. Having calculated the totals of turnovers, the final balance is determined: the debit is recorded in the row, and the credit - in the column. In the lower right corner of the matrix, the total amounts of turnover and the opening and closing balances are reflected.
By its structure, the balance sheet is a two-sided table, the left side of which is called an asset and reflects the economic assets of an enterprise, and the right side is called a liability and reflects the sources of these funds. The fact that the assets and liabilities of the balance sheet contain data on the same property, but only in a different grouping, determines the equality of the totals of the asset and liabilities of the balance sheet: the formula "src="http://hi-edu.ru/e- books/xbook705/files/f0.gif" border="0" align="absmiddle" alt="(!LANG:P.
Table 5
Chess balance
Document without a title
Opening balance |
By debit |
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Balance |
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Balance |
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The main element of the balance sheet is balance sheet item, which corresponds to a specific type of property or source. Each line (item) of the balance has its own serial number, which makes it easier to find. Groups of balance sheet items are combined into sections according to the economic content.
In the modern form of the Russian balance sheet, five sections are distinguished (Table 6).
Table 6
Balance sheet
Document without a title
Line code |
At the beginning of the reporting period |
At the end of the reporting period |
The code |
At the beginning of the reporting period |
At the end of the reporting period |
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Non-current |
III. Capital and reserves |
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II. negotiable |
IV. long term duties |
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V. Current liabilities |
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To reflect the state of funds and sources in the balance sheet, there are two columns for digital indicators: at the beginning of the reporting period and at the end of the reporting period. The second column shows the state of funds and their sources at the date of the balance sheet. The total amount for all sections of the asset (line 300 "Balance") and the total amount for all sections of the liability (line 700 "Balance") is called the balance sheet. If the total amount in the asset does not match the total amount of the liability (i.e., there is no balance), then this is evidence of errors in accounting and reflection of information. Assets cannot be more or less than the sources from which they are formed.
Vertical interrelationships of balance sheet asset items imply their location in order of increasing their liquidity level. The liquidity of an asset is understood as its ability to be converted into money without significant losses. At the beginning, less liquid items (intangible assets, fixed assets, etc.) are reflected, and at the end the most liquid ones (money on hand, on a current account, etc.). In the liabilities side of the balance sheet, the sources of property are located according to the principle of reducing the period of their return (from equity to short-term liabilities).
Synthetic accounting accounts and the balance sheet are interconnected. Balance sheet items correspond to the names of accounting accounts. Like the sides of the balance sheet (assets and liabilities), accounts are divided into active and passive. Accounting accounts at the beginning of the reporting period are opened on the basis of the balance sheet items with entries in the opening balances, at the end of the reporting period, on the basis of the final balances of synthetic accounts, a balance sheet is drawn up.
Business transactions have a direct impact on the balance sheet. This influence leads to a change in either the value of asset items, or liability items, or both at the same time.
Business transactions that cause a simultaneous change in both assets and liabilities are called modifications. The currency of the balance either increases or decreases.
Business transactions that do not change the balance sheet currency are called permutations. As a result of permutations, a redistribution occurs either as part of assets, and liabilities are not involved; or changes take place in liabilities while assets do not change.
There are four types of business transactions on the basis of their impact on the value of the asset and liability of the balance sheet (Table 7).
I type of operation - two active accounts (+A-A) interact with each other. As a result of the first type of business transaction, the balance sheet does not change, assets are redistributed, liabilities do not change.
II type of operation - two passive accounts (+ P-P) interact with each other. As a result of the second type of operation, the balance sheet currency does not change, liabilities are redistributed, and assets remain unchanged.
III type of operation - active and passive accounts increase (+ A + P). As a result of the third type of business transaction, the balance sheet increased, the assets and liabilities of the enterprise increased, but the equality of the balance sheet was not violated.
IV type of operation - both active and passive accounts decrease (-A -P). As a result of the fourth type of business transaction, the balance sheet decreased, the assets and liabilities of the enterprise decreased, but the equality of the balance was not violated.
Table 7
Four types of business transactions
Operations of the first and second types are permutation operations, and operations of the third and fourth types are modification operations.
The data of primary documents are accumulated and systematized in accounting registers. After checking the primary document, it is accounted for - a record on the accounting entry document (in the columns specially designated in the document or on the reverse side). After the account assignment of the document, the accountant posts the transaction to the accounts (records the posting in the relevant accounting registers). Accounting registers- these are data carriers of a certain form, adapted for recording and grouping in them information about business transactions using the double entry method. The results of the facts of economic life that took place over a certain period of time are transferred from the accounting registers in a grouped form to the financial statements.
Depending on the material basis, accounting registers are divided into paper and paperless. The classification of accounting registers is presented in Table. 8.
The book is a numbered and laced register, affixed with the seal of the enterprise and the signatures of the head and chief accountant. The pages of the book are divided depending on the specifics of the objects of observation reflected in it. For example, cash book, general ledger, deposited wage book, etc.
Table 8
Classification of accounting registers
Document without a title
Cards are durable forms with a printed table. They are subject to mandatory registration in a special register in order to control their safety. They are clear, easy to handle and easy to sort. Examples are inventory cards of fixed assets, cards of quantitative and sum accounting of materials, finished products, etc.
Sheets, as well as cards, are forms with printed tables, but large in size and the amount of information reflected in them. On sheets, for example, they calculate depreciation by type of fixed assets, calculate the cost of finished products, etc.
Paperless accounting registers include accounting tables formed in computer memory, floppy disks, CDs, etc.
Contracting registers are intended for analytical accounting of the state of settlements of the enterprise with debtors and creditors.
Material registers are used to account for the assets of the enterprise, expressed in quantitative terms. For example, a quantitative-sum statement.
Multigraph registers contain several columns designed to reflect the result of completed business transactions, and are used mainly for cost accounting.
IN chronological registers, the results of the facts of economic life are recorded as they arise (the journal of registration of business transactions).
IN systematic registers, business transactions are grouped according to certain accounting objects (cash book, balance sheet, accounts of the General Ledger).
IN combined registers there are signs of chronological and systematic records, i.e. they simultaneously contain both the journal of chronological records and the accounts of the General Ledger. For example, the book Journal is the main book, journals are orders.
Synchronistic registers - tables designed to reflect systematic or chronological and systematic records, having a multi-column form.
According to the volume of information, accounting registers are divided into synthetic ones - the General Ledger, magazines - orders, and analytical ones - quantitative-sum and current account statements, a material inventory card, inventory accounting cards for fixed assets, etc.
According to the Federal Law “On Accounting”, the data of accounting registers are a commercial secret of the enterprise. Organizations are recommended to use standard forms of accounting registers in accounting.
Entries in accounting registers are made without errors, blots and corrections. If you need to make changes to the accounts, then you can use one of the correction methods in the accounting registers:
proofreading;
reversal wiring;
additional wiring.
Corrective method used to correct entries in primary documents (except for cash and banking), if they have not yet been recorded in accounting registers. Also, the corrective method is used to correct incorrectly recorded amounts in accounting registers in which the results are not summed up. The corrective method is to cross out the wrong entry and write the correct one.
Reversal transactions(the "red line" method) are used in accounting registers to correct both the correspondence of accounts and incorrectly recorded amounts for a business transaction. Reversal entries are used in registers before and after summing up. They are written in red (negative) ink. The procedure for correcting entries is as follows:
an incorrect entry is repeated in the same correspondence and amount in red ink. This indicates that the amount has become negative and should be subtracted when calculating the revolutions;
make a correct positive entry of the transaction and amount in blue or black ink.
Additional posting method apply when the posting is drawn up correctly, and the amount of the business transaction is underestimated. This method consists in recording in the same correspondence of accounts an amount equal to the amount of the error made. The method of additional postings is used in accounting registers before and after summing up.
The structure of accounting registers used in accounting, their relationship, the sequence and methods of recording business transactions in them are determined by the form of accounting.
Form of accounting - this is a set of accounting registers to reflect business transactions in a certain sequence and grouping.
The organization independently determines the form and technology of processing accounting information. Forms of accounting are necessarily consistent with the stages of the classical accounting procedure. Under accounting procedure is understood as a logically consistent strict sequence of accounting actions for reflecting information in the process of registration, accumulation and processing of accounting data. Acquaintance with the accounting procedure involves the allocation of accounting activities performed at a time at the time of the creation of the organization (registration of statutory documents) and current accounting activities carried out in each reporting period. The procedure includes inventory, opening balance sheet, journal, general ledger, turnover sheet and closing balance sheet.
During the period of registration of statutory documents, accounting begins - an opening (organizational) balance sheet is built. The initialization of the accounting of an economic entity coincides in time with the date of registration of the Charter. The opening (organizational) balance sheet, in accordance with the principle of continuity of accounting, should be built according to the registration document - the Charter. At the stage of the organizational period, the duality equation differs in a simplified form: Assets = Owners' capital.
In this formula, there are no obligations of the organization to the second and third parties, since at this point in time financial and economic activities have not yet been carried out, accounts payable have not been formed, and the receivables of the founders for contributions to the authorized capital have been formed.
Thus, the opening balance sheet is based on two inventories (inventory lists - a list of assets):
The first inventory is the inventory of property contributed by the owners as contributions to the authorized, deposit, share and similar capital.
The second inventory is the inventory of obligations of the participants of the enterprise (accounts receivable) for the remaining unpaid part of the contributions.
The balancing indicator of the duality equation is the capital of the owner, equal in value to the advanced capital declared in the Charter. In each reporting period, based on the balance sheet indicators at the beginning of the reporting period, permanent accounts with a clearly expressed balance are opened (asset indicators form a block of active accounts, liability indicators form a block of passive accounts). Further, business transactions are recorded in chronological order and systematized. The Registration Journal, the General Ledger, the Balance Turnover Sheet are compiled. Based on the turnover sheet, it is compiled final balance.
Debit balances are recorded in the asset balance, and credit - in liabilities. In the final balance sheet, the indicators of the main and regulatory accounts are shown in one line in total. Next, the final indicators are determined for the sections of the balance sheet and the balance sheet currency is summed up, which must be compared with the same indicator in the turnover sheet.
The balance sheet is the main document of financial statements. Financial statements- a unified system of data on the property and financial position of the organization and on the results of its economic activity, compiled on the basis of accounting data in accordance with established forms.
The financial statements consist of a balance sheet (Form No. 1), a profit and loss statement (Form No. 2), annexes to them and an explanatory note, as well as an auditor's report confirming the accuracy of the organization's financial statements, if in accordance with Federal Laws it is subject to mandatory audit.
Accounting statements should give a reliable and complete picture of the financial position of the organization, the financial results of its activities and changes in its financial position.
Accounting statements formed on the basis of the rules established by regulatory acts on accounting are considered reliable and complete. The balance sheet should characterize the financial position of the organization as of the reporting date. The profit and loss statement should characterize the financial results of the organization's activities for the reporting period. Explanations to the balance sheet and income statement should disclose information related to the accounting policies of the organization and provide users with additional data that is not appropriate to include in the balance sheet and income statement, but which are necessary for users of financial statements to really assess the financial position of the organization , its financial results and changes in its financial position. Explanations to the balance sheet and income statement disclose information in the form of separate reporting forms (statement of cash flows, statement of changes in equity, etc.) and in the form of an explanatory note. Accounting statements are open to users - founders (participants), investors, credit institutions, creditors, buyers, suppliers, etc.
Question 1 Classification of property of the organization
1. Classification of property by composition, location and sources of formation.
2. The concept of receivables and payables.
Question 2 Accounting documents
1. The concept of an accounting document.
2. Definition of the primary accounting document.
3. Principles and signs of grouping accounting documents.
4. Document flow
Question 3 Unified forms of primary accounting documents
1. Unified forms of primary accounting documents.
2. Taxation and account assignment of accounting documents.
Question 4 Accounting registers
2. Types of accounting registers.
Question 5 The working chart of accounts of the organization's accounting.
Topic 1 Theoretical foundations of accounting for the property of an organization.
Example
"Album of unified forms of primary accounting documentation for accounting for products, inventory items in places of storage" (forms approved by the Decree of the State Statistics Committee of the Russian Federation of 09.08.1999 N 66)
Decree of the State Statistics Committee of the Russian Federation of October 30, 1997 N 71a "On approval of unified forms of primary accounting documentation for accounting for labor and its payment, fixed assets and intangible assets, materials, low-value and wearing items, work in capital construction"
Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation of December 15, 2010 N 173n "On approval of the forms of primary accounting documents and accounting registers used by state authorities (state bodies), local governments, management bodies of state non-budgetary funds, state academies of sciences, state (municipal) institutions and Guidelines for their application.
5. Taxation and account assignment of accounting documents.
After a thorough and comprehensive check of the documents, they begin their accounting processing, which includes taxation, grouping and drawing up postings (accounting).
Taxiing(rate) determination of the monetary value of business transactions recorded in the documents - is the multiplication of the quantity by the price per unit in the primary document itself. For example, limit-fence cards for the release of materials into production are received by the accounting department indicating only the amount of materials released (kg, t, m, etc.).
The accounting department determines the cost of materials used by taxing limit cards. Many documents entering the accounting department have only physical indicators. When taxing, such documents indicate prices and amounts.
grouping includes the compilation of grouping statements according to the grouped primary documents of homogeneous economic content. The results of the documents selected by groups are calculated and these results are recorded in the grouping sheets. Such grouping statements are compiled for the receipt and consumption of materials, for wages, general production and general business expenses, etc. In the context of names and directions in the use of resources for a certain past period, as a rule, for a month.
Preparation of accounting entries (accounting) expressed in the indication in the primary correspondence documents of accounts for a specific business transaction. After the postings (accounting assignments) have been drawn up on the basis of the documents, i.e. offsetting accounts are established, make an entry on these accounts in the appropriate registers. A special place is reserved for recording correspondence in documents. If there is a consolidated document, then the specified entry is made at the end of it.
Question 3 Accounting registers
1. The concept of accounting registers.
2. Types of accounting registers.
3. The procedure for compiling accounting registers.
1. The concept of accounting registers.
To systematize and accumulate the information contained in the primary accounting documents accepted for accounting, consolidated accounting documents are compiled - accounting registers , which, depending on the degree of automation, can be compiled on paper and machine media on accounting accounts and in financial statements.
Entries in accounting registers are based on carefully checked documents, therefore, the registers themselves become evidential when using their indicators to analyze the economic activities of the organization, while monitoring the state of the means to identify the results of activities.
Accounting registers have probative force when using their indicators to analyze the economic activity of an enterprise, in monitoring the state of funds and in identifying the results of its work. Responsibility for the correct reflection of operations in the registers is borne by the persons who compiled and signed them.
The composition of accounting registers, their form, the order and sequence of filling, the technique of mutual reconciliation determines the form of accounting.
2. Types of accounting registers.
Scheme 15. Classification of accounting registers.
Classification of accounting registers:
one). In appearance:
Cards;
Loose sheets;
Machine media (magnetic tapes, disks, floppy disks, etc.)
Books are bound free sheets of a certain format and graphing. The work of maintaining them is assigned to only one person (cash book). Such books are numbered and laced, and the last page indicates the number of pages signed by the head of the enterprise and the chief accountant, thus. the possibility of replacing individual sheets with new ones is excluded in case of abuse and theft. Example: General Ledger - Synthetic Accounting Register, Book of Remaining Materials in Warehouses - Analytical Accounting Register.
Cards- designed for analytical accounting of fixed assets (inventory cards), material assets at their storage locations. Based on them, the accounting department creates a file of fixed assets, and materially responsible persons - a file of materials, spare parts, finished products.
Loose sheets- accounting registers of a large format and with a large amount of information in relation to cards that are intended for synthetic and analytical accounting and playing the role of combined registers. These include: magazines-orders, statements, tabulagrams and machinograms. This is the most common type of accounting registers.
2). By the nature of the registration records:
Chronological - a consistent reflection of economically heterogeneous business transactions, in order to ensure the completeness of accounting for all business transactions in the order in which they were performed by date. (Book of purchases, book of sales);
Systematic - a reflection of economically homogeneous business transactions in the accounts of accounting, with the aim of grouping and summarizing information about the state and movement of economic assets of the enterprise. (Main book);
Combined - a combination of chronological and systematic records.
3). In terms of information detail:
Synthetic - General ledger, order journals;
Analytical - tabulagrams, cards of analytical accounting.
4). By form:
Bilateral - the transaction is reflected in the debit and credit of the corresponding accounts;
Unilateral - the operation is reflected either in the debit of the account or in the credit;
Linear - a record of a business transaction on the debit and credit of the account is reflected in one line;
Chess - the principle of constructing an accounting register, in which the amount of a business transaction recorded once will be reflected in the debit and credit of the corresponding accounts. This is achieved by building accounting registers according to the chess principle. It is used in the journal-order form of accounting.
3. The procedure for compiling accounting registers.
Form of accounting - this is a combination of certain accounting registers, their relationship, sequence and methods of making accounts. It is chosen by the organization independently, based on the amount of information received, the degree of preparedness of accountants and a number of other factors. During the reporting period, the accepted form of accounting should not change.
Organizations use the following forms of accounting:
· memorial order (using memorial orders and registers of analytical accounting);
journal-order (using journal-orders, auxiliary statements, accumulative tables, analytical accounting registers and the general ledger);
magazine-main;
Simplified form for small businesses;
automated (computerized accounting).
Until recently, the main forms of accounting that have received the most widespread use in accounting practice have been: memorial-order and journal-order forms of accounting. However, since the end of the 90s of the last century, in connection with the active computerization of the country, an automated form of accounting has become widespread. It is rare to find manual bookkeeping today. Accountants usually use one of the specialized computer accounting programs (1C: accounting, Info-accountant, Sail, Best, Inotek, etc.) for accounting, tax accounting and reporting.
1. When memorial order form(Scheme 16) synthetic accounting is kept in books, and for the purposes of analytical accounting, cards are used that are easy to group. Accounting entries in this form of accounting are drawn up by compiling memorial orders, which are issued for each individual operation or group of homogeneous operations, combined by one accumulative or grouping statement. For example, invoices for the release of materials are not reflected in the accounting as a separate entry - they are recorded in one accumulative statement. The result of the statement is the sum for one accounting entry, therefore only one memorial order is issued (Scheme 17), to which the documents are attached, on the basis of which the entries were made.
Scheme 16. Scheme of the memorial order form of accounting.
All memorial orders, as they are issued, are recorded in the registration journal (Scheme 18), where they are assigned current serial numbers. The total amount of entries in this journal should correspond to the monthly turnover on synthetic accounts. Then, on the basis of the same memorial warrants, entries are made in the General Ledger.
Memorial Order No. _______
primary accounting documents for "___" ___________200___
on account No. ________________ number of documents _____________________
Scheme 18. Registration book.
main book - register of synthetic accounting. In it, for each account, an expanded sheet is provided for recording the balance at the beginning and end of the month, the debit turnover in expanded form, i.e. in correspondence with credited accounts and the total amount of loan turnover. The general ledger opens for a year, and one line is assigned to each month.
The general ledger in this form is called the checklist. Only the current turnover for the period is taken into account on the ledger accounts.
The form of general ledger accounts is built with a breakdown of debits and credits for each offsetting account and looks like this (Figure 19):
main book
Check ______________
Scheme 19. General ledger.
Based on the results of the General Ledger, a turnover sheet of the usual or chess form is compiled. The data of the General Ledger and the turnover sheet are used to compile the balance sheet and other forms of reporting.
Analytical accounting in this form of accounting is carried out in books, cards or on free sheets on the basis of the same documents that are attached to the memorial warrants. Compiled at the end of the month turnover sheets for a group of analytical accounts combined by the corresponding synthetic account, using these statements to reconcile the totals of turnovers and balances of analytical accounts with a synthetic account.
2. Form of accounting "magazine-main" is a kind of memorial-order form of accounting and is used in small organizations with a simple production process (works, services) that have property.
The main accounting form is based on memorial warrants, which are recorded monthly in chronological order in the synthetic accounting register, which is commonly called the main journal. Initially, account balances at the beginning of the reporting period are entered into this book, then all transactions on documents broken down by debit and credit of corresponding accounts, after which the turnover and account balances at the end of the reporting period are determined. At the same time, the correctness of the entry is checked: the amount of turnover for the month on the debit of all accounts must be equal to the sum of the turnover for the month on the credit of all accounts (Scheme 21).
Scheme 21. Scheme of the accounting form "Magazine-Main".
According to the balances on the accounts, the final balance sheet is drawn up.
All business transactions reflected in the primary documents attached to the memorial warrants are put into analytical accounting cards of the established form, opened in the development of each synthetic account. All cards are registered by the accounting department in a special register.
A variant of this form of accounting is the simplified form of accounting recommended by the Ministry of Finance for small enterprises, in which the “main journal” is called the book of business transactions and separately provides for the maintenance of a payroll record.
3. The main principle of registration of primary documents in the journal-order form of accounting is the principle of their accumulation. Accounting registration consists in the fact that homogeneous operations are recorded in chronological order in special accumulative statements, which, for this reason, are called Journals.
Scheme 22. Scheme of the journal-order form of accounting.
The entry is made directly from the primary document, and if there are a large number of homogeneous documents, from the auxiliary statement (according to its results), where these documents are preliminarily grouped.
Journal totals are the monthly turnovers of the corresponding synthetic accounts, grouped by interrelated offsetting accounts, and are the basis for accounting entries of the turnovers of this account in the General Ledger.
Thus, the Journals simultaneously serve as warrants that draw up accounting entries for the month (hence the name of these accumulative registers - Journal-orders).
Entries in the Order Journal (Scheme 23) are kept on the credit of the account (or those accounts) for which it is open, while indicating the corresponding debit accounts. Debit turnovers on this account are reflected in those Journals-orders in which the data of another account corresponding with the debit of this account will be recorded. This principle of recording is called chess. It allows you to use the method of double entry in one go (once) for debit and credit of offsetting accounts. At the same time, all credit turnover for each synthetic account is collected in one Order Journal.
Magazine-order No. 1
on account credit 50 Cashier to debit accounts
Scheme 23. Magazine-order on account 50 "Cashier".
At the end of the month, the results of the Journal-Orders are transferred to the General Ledger (Scheme 24), where for each synthetic account the detailed totals of debit turnovers, the total turnover of credits and balances (at the beginning and at the end of the current month) are reflected.
main book
Check ____________________
Scheme 24. General ledger for the journal-order form of accounting.
Turnovers on the debit of accounts are reflected in various Order Journals, therefore the total amount of turnover on the debit of each account is determined only after entries from all Order Journals are entered in the General Ledger.
4. A simplified form of accounting can be maintained according to a simple form of accounting (without using registers for accounting for the property of a small enterprise) and a form of accounting using accounting registers for the property of a small enterprise.
A simplified form of accounting without the use of property registers is recommended for small enterprises in the non-manufacturing sector, as well as enterprises that do not have their own fixed assets and the production process, which is usually associated with various material costs (Scheme 25). The following operations are common business transactions: accrual and payment of wages, payments to the budget and off-budget funds, business expenses, settlements under contracts for rendered and rendered services.
Scheme 25. Scheme of the journal-order accounting scheme for small businesses
5. The development of computer technology led to the emergence after 1960 of an automated form of accounting (Figure 29). Accounting automation is based on a single interconnected technological process for processing documentation for all sections of accounting, from the collection of primary accounting data to the receipt of financial statements.
Scheme 29. Scheme of an automated form of accounting.
Reference information is entered into a personal computer (PC) at the beginning of work. Current accounting information - from primary documents or from special registrars of credentials is produced from special programs, in accordance with which the received accounting information can be stored, processed, displayed on the screen or printed on request.
Currently, the accounting software market has a fairly large number of application software packages (1C: Accounting, Info Accountant, Turbo Accountant, BEST, Galaxy, Parus, etc.).
Under the conditions of complex accounting automation, synthetic and analytical accounting data are generated in the databases of the software package used and are monthly displayed on paper - output forms of documents (memorial orders, cards, statements, general ledger, report, etc.). An accounting register received from a PC can be any document containing a systematic and chronological record. At the same time, the content of indicators in the output forms of documents must comply with the requirements provided for by law for accounting registers.
Question 4 The working chart of accounts of the organization's accounting.
1. The need to develop a working plan of accounts based on a typical one.
2. The problem of optimal organization of the working chart of accounts
1. The need to develop a working plan of accounts based on the model.
The working chart of accounts is an integral part of the accounting policy of any organization. Usually it is given in one of the appendices to the order on the approval of the accounting policy.
The need for its development is due, first of all, to the requirements of the legislation. Indeed, in accordance with paragraph 4 of PBU 1/2008 "Accounting policy of the organization", each organization, when approving the accounting policy, must approve, among other things, a working chart of accounting accounts containing synthetic and analytical accounts necessary for accounting in accordance with the requirements of timeliness and completeness of accounting and reporting.
State, budgetary and autonomous institutions should also form a working chart of accounts. After all, according to paragraph 6 of the Instructions for the use of the Unified Chart of Accounts (approved by Order of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated December 1, 2010 N 157n), accounting entities form their accounting policies based on the characteristics of their structure, industry and other features of the institution's activities and the powers it performs.
The development of a working chart of accounts is a very responsible and difficult moment.
Perhaps it is he who is the most important component of the accounting system of the organization. After all work plan accounts falls on the classification of accounting objects, and it, in turn, determines the possibility of further detailing of accounting information and, accordingly, the possibility or impossibility of quickly obtaining by various users of this information certain data they need to make appropriate management decisions.
Industry specifics;
The scale and types of activities;
Organizational-legal form and structure of the organization;
The need for separate accounting;
Requirements for the formation of financial statements (especially in terms of detailing and disclosure of information);
The need to "integrate" into accounting (financial) accounting the solution of individual tasks of tax and management accounting (including the interconnection of accounting and tax accounting indicators), etc.
SOURCE DOCUMENT - "OFFICIAL" CHART OF ACCOUNTS
The Order of the Ministry of Finance of Russia N 94n mentioned above approved the Chart of Accounts, which serves basis for developing work plans accounts in all organizations, except for credit and state (municipal) institutions. It is a scheme for registering and grouping the facts of economic activity (assets, liabilities, financial, business transactions, etc.) in accounting.
And the Instruction for the Application of the Chart of Accounts establishes uniform approaches to its application by organizations and the reflection of the facts of economic activity on the accounts of accounting. It provides a brief description of synthetic accounts and sub-accounts opened for them: their structure and purpose, the economic content of the facts of economic activity generalized on them, the order in which the most common facts are reflected are disclosed.
At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the principles, rules and methods of accounting for certain assets, liabilities, financial, business transactions, etc., including recognition, valuation, grouping, are established by regulations and other regulations, as well as methodological instructions. on accounting matters. That is, by themselves, the Chart of Accounts and the Instructions for its use do not establish any independent requirements for the organization of accounting for various objects. However, on their basis, each organization must develop and approve its own working chart of accounts. accounting, containing a complete list of synthetic and analytical (including sub-accounts) accounts required for accounting.
The Chart of Accounts contains the names and numbers of synthetic accounts (first-order accounts) and sub-accounts (second-order accounts).
Synthetic accounts cannot be changed when generating a working chart of accounts. And to use free account numbers in order to introduce additional synthetic accounts into the working chart of accounts to account for specific transactions, that is, in cases where the available accounts are not enough to reliably and adequately reflect certain transactions in accounting, it is possible only in agreement with the Ministry of Finance of Russia .
But the sub-accounts provided for by the "official" Chart of Accounts are used by each organization based on the requirements of managing the organization, including the needs of analysis, control and reporting. In other words, it is possible to clarify the content of sub-accounts, exclude and combine them, as well as introduce additional sub-accounts (Letter of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated 18.01.2006 N 07-05-06 / 07).
The procedure for conducting analytical accounting is established by the organization on the basis of the Instructions for the application of the Chart of Accounts, PBU norms and other regulations, as well as Methodological guidelines on accounting issues (fixed assets, inventories, etc.).
Also in the Instruction, after characterizing each synthetic account, a typical scheme of its correspondence with other synthetic accounts is given. However, they do not claim to be complete and inviolable. And that means , in the event of the occurrence of facts of economic activity, the correspondence for which is not provided for in the standard scheme, organization can add it, observing uniform approaches, set by the instructions.
CODING OF BILLS
The working chart of accounts, like the standard Chart of Accounts, is built according to a hierarchical principle - in the development of synthetic accounts, sub-accounts are opened and then analytical accounts up to the "depth" that is necessary for the purposes of management, control, formation of not only public accounting (financial), but also internal reporting.
In the working chart of accounts of the organization, as many accounts, sub-accounts and analytical accounts can be used as necessary to reflect business activities.
General code structure of each account can be built on the principles of a positional coding system:
The first two characters are reserved for designating the synthetic account number in accordance with the standard Chart of Accounts;
The third character is for sub-account coding;
Subsequent characters - for grouping and coding analytical accounts.
DEFINITION OF THE LIST OF SYNTHETIC ACCOUNTS
Of course, only those synthetic accounts that are necessary to reflect the business transactions performed by the organization should be included in the working chart of accounts.
For example, if an organization is a small business entity and the accounting policy contains a decision not to apply PBU 18/02 "Accounting for settlements on corporate income tax" (approved by Order of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated November 19, 2002 N 114n), it is not necessary to include accounts 09 "Deferred tax assets" and 77 "Deferred tax liabilities".
Or, say, if an organization does not have and is not going to acquire or create intangible assets (for example, acquire exclusive rights to computer programs), it may not include such synthetic accounts as 04 "Intangible assets" and 05 "Amortization of intangible assets" in the working chart of accounts. assets".
And trade organizations and public catering enterprises that are not engaged, in addition to trading activities or activities in the field of public catering, other activities related to the production and sale of products (performance of work, provision of services), do not need 20th accounts at all, because all expenses are collect on account 44 "Expenses for sale".
Pay special attention to the fact that all accounts that the organization intends to use to record business transactions must be included in the working chart of accounts. That is, the general rule applied when forming an accounting policy does not apply here, according to which the text of an accounting policy does not need to include provisions that are mandatory for all organizations, and only those issues in respect of which there is a choice or uncertainty should be written. For example, all organizations use accounts 50 "Cashier", 90 "Sales" and a number of other accounts. However, the presence of these accounts and comments on them in Order No. 94n does not exempt the organization from the need to mention these accounts also in its working chart of accounts. The same applies to sub-accounts, even if the organization decided to use exactly those sub-accounts (with those numbers and names) that are recommended by Order N 94n. Small businesses can keep accounting in a simplified form, reducing the number of synthetic accounts by combining them. Recommendations on how exactly to do this were given by specialists of the Ministry of Finance of Russia in the Information Letter dated 06/11/2009 "On a simplified system of accounting and financial reporting for small businesses."
BUILDING ANALYTICS
As we have already noted, in contrast to synthetic accounts that cannot be "modified" , as well as adding new synthetic accounts not provided for by Order N 94n, without the consent of the Ministry of Finance of Russia, the sub-accounts given in this Order are in fact advisory, and organizations have every right to disaggregate, merge, change numbering and perform other manipulations.
In other words , building analytics for each synthetic account, including the structure and coding of sub-accounts (analytical accounts of the first order), is a personal business of every organization and it is determined primarily by the specifics of its activities.
In addition, it is necessary that the working chart of accounts fully comply with the methodological section of the accounting policy. For example, if an organization has decided to keep records of finished products at standard cost, the working chart of accounts should provide for the use of not only accounts 43 "Finished products" and 20 "Main production", but also accounts 40 "Output of products (works, services)". And if the construction organization, in accordance with PBU 2/2008 "Accounting for construction contracts" (approved by Order of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated October 24, 2008 N 116n) recognizes revenue until the work is completed under the contract and the corresponding amounts are presented for payment to the customer, to the working chart of accounts account 46 "Completed stages of work in progress" must be included.
Of course, when designing the structure of the working chart of accounts, it is necessary to be guided, among other things, by the instructions given in the Instructions for the Application of the Chart of Accounts.
For example, it is necessary to keep analytical records on account 60 "Settlements with suppliers and contractors" in the end for each invoice presented (and for settlements in the order of planned payments - for each supplier and contractor). At the same time, the construction of analytical accounting should provide the possibility of obtaining the necessary data on:
Suppliers on accepted and other settlement documents, the payment deadline for which has not yet come;
Suppliers on unpaid settlement documents;
Suppliers for uninvoiced deliveries;
Advances issued;
To suppliers on issued promissory notes, the payment term of which has not come;
Suppliers on overdue bills of exchange;
Suppliers on received commercial credit
Similar requirements for the organization of analytical accounting are also provided for account 62 "Settlements with buyers and customers".
All this, of course, must be taken into account when forming a working plan of accounts. At a minimum, it is necessary to “separate” the active and passive parts of such accounts intended for accounting for settlements in order to “separate” the subaccounts on which receivables are formed and the subaccounts on which accounts payable are formed. In other words, it is necessary to provide at least two different sub-accounts to account for advance payments (that is, for advances issued on account 60, which will be active, and for advances received on account 62, which will be passive) and for accounting for settlements under executed contracts (passive to score 60 and active to score 62). This approach will ensure the formation of a "detailed" balance, which is subject to separate reflection in the balance sheet: receivables in the asset, and accounts payable - in liabilities.
One more example. The construction of an analytical account on account 58 "Financial investments" should provide the possibility of obtaining data about short-term and long-term assets (Letters of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated March 25, 2009 N N 07-02-12/06 and 07-02-12/07).
Pay special attention to the next point. The list of analytical accounts for each synthetic account (subaccount) must be exhaustive so that the total amount of balances and turnovers on all analytical accounts opened in the development of a subaccount, or on all subaccounts detailing information on a synthetic account, are equal to the corresponding balances and turnovers on this subaccount or synthetic account.
This is dictated by common sense, and the same rule follows from the requirement of consistency (clause 6 PBU 1/200