Accounting for beginners. Types of accounting and their characteristics Their movement through a continuous continuous
three interconnected accounting type:
* operational;
* statistical;
* accounting.
Operational accounting -
Statistical accounting - .
Accounting - .
2.
Accounting - an orderly system for collecting, registering and summarizing information in monetary terms about property, liabilities and their movement through a continuous, continuous and documentary reflection of all business transactions .
Peculiarities accounting:
* Documentary substantiation of the facts;
* their continuous and continuous reflection;
The use of special data processing methods (accounts, double entry, balance, etc.).
Basic control functions
* control over their implementation;
* assessment of decisions made.
* business processes.
Organization property. Classification of property by functional role in the process of reproduction
Property - immovable and movable things accepted by the organization for accounting (including money and securities), other property, incl. property rights of the organization in relation to other persons, as well as exclusive rights to the results of intellectual activity.
According to the composition and functional role (nature of use), the property of the organization is divided into:
* fixed assets;
* current assets;
* abstract assets.
Non-current assets include:
* fixed assets;
* profitable investments in material assets;
* Equipment for installation;
* investments in non-current assets. Current assets include:
* stocks a) production stocks;
b) animals for growing and fattening;
c) finished products;
d) goods;
* costs of work in progress;
* cash a) at the box office
b) on bank accounts;
in) financial investments(stocks, bonds,
loans, etc.);
Funds in current settlements with debtors:
settlements (accounts receivable with buyers and customers;
debt) with the founders on deposits
to the statutory fund;
With other debtors (accountable
faces, etc.).
Distracted Assets- losses of the organization.
Sources of property formation. Source classification
The sources of formation of the property of the organization are divided into:
* own sources;
* borrowed (attracted) sources.
Own sources include:
* statutory fund;
* reserve fund;
* additional fund;
* special-purpose financing;
* retained earnings.
Borrowed (attracted) sources consist of:
* long-term borrowing sources (long-term liabilities: bank loans with a maturity of more than 1 year and loans with a maturity of more than 1 year);
* short-term borrowed sources (short-term liabilities: loans and borrowings with a maturity of up to 1 year, settlements with creditors (with suppliers and other creditors), deferred income, reserves upcoming expenses).
Business operations are components of business processes,
Their characteristic
A business transaction is a movement of property (funds) of an organization, accompanied by a change in its forms. It is characterized by features and indicators.
Characterizes the signs qualitatively (price, norm, rate, etc.).
The indicators reflect quantitative characteristic business transaction (natural, labor and monetary meter).
Fact economic activity covers all objects and phenomena of primary accounting supervision without exception.
A business transaction is a particular, most common, case of the fact of economic activity.
The practice of economic activity determined 3 sets of business transactions:
* business operations for procurement production stocks;
* business operations for the production of products;
* business operations for the sale of products.
Each set forms a separate business process.
Passive account scheme
(title)
Debit Credit
Examples of passive accounts: "Authorized Fund";
« reserve fund»;
"Undestributed profits";
"Settlements with suppliers and contractors", etc.
The ending balance (C to) in a passive account is determined by the formula:
C to \u003d C " + O to -O d
11. general characteristics and the structure of active-passive accounting accounts
Active-passive accounts are mixed, but ultimately the records of business transactions in them correspond general rule dividing accounts into active and passive.
Depending on the nature of the business transactions performed on these accounts, the balances can be either debit or credit, or both debit and credit.
Balances on such accounts can be reflected in the asset or in the liabilities side of the balance sheet.
To determine the balance in active-passive accounts, data is used analytical accounting. The balance is displayed for each debtor and creditor, and then the final balance for the debit and credit of the account is determined.
Active-passive account scheme
Check___________________________________
(title)
Examples of active-passive accounts: “Settlements with different debtors
and creditors;
"Settlements with the founders", etc.
Document classification
To facilitate the study and use in accounting practice, a wide variety of primary documents classified according to the following criteria:
- appointment | · administrative; acquittal (executive); · accounting registration; combined |
- sequence (time) of compilation | primary; Consolidated (advance report); Derivatives · intermediate; |
- method of use or degree of coverage of business transactions | one-time ( cash orders); cumulative (limit-fence cards); |
- number of positions (rows) | Single-line · multiline; |
- place of compilation | internal; external; |
- form | typical (unified); specialized; |
- filling method | · manually; On typewriters on a personal computer; |
- reproduction of information | originals (finance); · copies; Extracts from documents |
- shelf life | current storage period (from 1 to 5 years); permanent storage. |
20. Organization of document flow. Document processing
Documentation of business transactions consists in the perception of data about the operation (counting, measurement) and entering the received data into the document (filling in its details).
The creation of a set of primary documents is primary accounting. Primary accounting- this is a set of techniques for the perception of initial information and its registration in documents.
Primary accounting can be carried out manually and automatically.
Condition (i.e. reliability and timeliness) primary accounting depends on the provision of the organization with a variety of technical means for calculating and measuring quantitative values.
Consequently, primary accounting is an organized system for monitoring, measuring, recording data on economic organizations and other facts of economic activity used to make management decisions.
It is necessary not only to correctly draw up documents, but also to submit them in a timely manner for processing, i.e. the workflow schedule must be adhered to.
Document flow- this is the movement of a document from the moment it is drawn up through all stages of accounting processing to transfer to storage.
The organization should develop a workflow schedule, which indicates the deadlines for submitting documents to the accounting department for processing (by their types), indicating responsible persons. The workflow schedule provides for a uniform load not only for the accounting apparatus, but also for all other employees associated with primary accounting.
Workflow schedule develops Chief Accountant. He also oversees its implementation.
Every organization should develop document management system, including:
* development of regulations on the accounting service;
* compilation job descriptions accounting machine;
* Drawing up a plan-schedule of document flow;
* Creation of accounting information processing technology;
* development of a nomenclature of cases for current and permanent storage.
Document processing in accounting
The processing of documents checked and accepted by the accounting department includes the following steps:
After putting down the correspondence of the accounts, the documents are used to record transactions for sets in accounting registers.
Ensuring the safety of documents and reporting forms is entrusted to the head of the organization.
After compiling financial statements primary documents are transferred for storage. The storage time of documents is determined by a special list, in which storage periods are established for specific types of documents.
Documents of permanent storage are transferred to departmental and state archives.
Withdrawal of documents from the organization can be carried out only on the basis of decisions of bodies of inquiry and courts. The withdrawal is formalized by an act, a copy of which is handed over against receipt to an official of the organization. With the permission and in the presence of representatives of the bodies conducting the seizure, the chief accountant (another official) may make copies of the seized documents indicating the grounds and date of their seizure.
Types of accounting and their characteristics
System business accounting includes three interconnected accounting type:
* operational;
* statistical;
* accounting.
Operational accounting - a system of current monitoring and control over individual facts in order to manage them when they are committed. The main meters are natural and labor.
Statistical accounting - a system of registration, generalization and study of mass, qualitatively homogeneous socio-economic phenomena on the scale of enterprises, industries, regions, countries. Meters - natural, labor, monetary.
Accounting - an orderly system for collecting, registering and summarizing information in monetary terms about property, liabilities and their movement through a continuous, continuous and documentary reflection of all business transactions.
Accounting features:
* Documentary substantiation of the facts;
* their continuous and continuous reflection;
Application of special methods of data processing (accounts, double entry, balance, etc.).
2. Definition, subject and objects of accounting
Accounting - an orderly system for collecting, registering and summarizing information in monetary terms about property, liabilities and their movement through a continuous, continuous and documentary reflection of all business transactions.
Accounting features:
* Documentary substantiation of the facts;
* their continuous and continuous reflection;
Application of special methods of data processing (accounts, double entry, balance, etc.).
Basic control functions- control and regulation, the implementation of which depends on information support. Accounting generates information about the results and the state of all areas of the organization's activities, which is used to make management decisions, the essence of which is:
* planning the goals of action;
* control over their implementation;
* assessment of decisions made.
The subject of accounting is an ordered and regulated Information system, reflecting the totality of property in terms of composition and location, according to the sources of their formation, business transactions and the results of the organization's activities in monetary terms.
Accounting objects:
* property (economic means, assets);
* sources of formation of property (funds, assets);
* business processes.
Accounting is an ordered system of collecting, registering and summarizing information in monetary terms about the property, obligations of organizations and their movement through continuous, continuous and documentary accounting all business transactions. Throughout the accounting period, its registers chronologically and systematically record all the production and financial activities of the enterprise, the availability and movement of funds, their sources and current business operations. Accounting is carried out by continuous, continuous and consistent registration of all accounting information on the basis of duly executed primary accounting documents, which record the completed business transactions. It is characterized by the use of special techniques and methods for processing economic information: accounting accounts, double entry of business transactions, balance sheet.
Thus, accounting is a system of generalization and monitoring of financial and economic activities, reflected in order and continuously with the help of special documents in order to obtain data on the operation of the enterprise and control its activities.
Accounting, except for the theory of accounting, includes: managerial and financial accounting.1. Financial accounting is a system for preparing and collecting accounting information that ensures the registration and reflection of business transactions. The purpose of financial accounting is the preparation of financial (accounting) reports, including for external users, therefore, all organizations without exception must keep it. The rules for maintaining financial accounting, as well as the procedure for compiling financial reporting, defined by law and based on generally accepted principles.2. Management accounting is designed to collect internal accounting information that is used within the organization to make management decisions. Management accounting is a system for determining, collecting, measuring, as well as analyzing and transmitting to managers the information that is necessary for planning the organization's commercial activities, its control and management of various objects. This type of accounting is optional, the requirement for its use comes from the administration of the organization; at the same time, outside bodies do not influence the management accounting system.
The main tasks of accounting are:
formation of complete and reliable information about the activities of the organization and its property status, necessary for internal users of financial statements - managers, founders, participants and owners of the organization's property, as well as external - investors, creditors and other users of financial statements;
providing information necessary for internal and external users of financial statements to control:
o compliance with the law Russian Federation when the organization carries out business operations and their expediency;
o the presence and movement of property and liabilities;
o use of material, labor and financial resources in accordance with approved norms, standards and estimates;
· Prevention of negative results of economic activities of the organization and identification of intra-economic reserves to ensure its financial stability.
In accordance with the Federal Law "On Accounting" N ° 129-FZ of November 21, 1996, the following basic requirements are imposed on accounting:
· accounting of property, liabilities and economic operations of the organization is carried out in the currency of the Russian Federation - in rubles;
The property that is the property of the organization is considered separately from the property of others legal entities, located at this organization;
the organization keeps accounting records continuously from the moment of its registration as a legal entity until reorganization or liquidation in the manner prescribed by the legislation of the Russian Federation;
The organization keeps accounting of property, liabilities and business transactions by double entry on interrelated accounting accounts included in the working chart of accounting accounts;
· Analytical accounting data must correspond to the turnover and balances of synthetic accounting accounts;
All business transactions and inventory results are subject to timely registration on accounting accounts without any omissions or exceptions;
· in the accounting of organizations, the current costs of production and investments in non-current assets are accounted for separately.
Peculiarities.
Accounting has features, namely:
It is documentary and evidence-based;
Continuity (every day) and sequence (without any gaps) of registration of all accounting information;
is a cost accounting (funds and transactions are reflected in without fail in value terms);
· such methods of processing accounting data are used as: accounting accounts and balance sheet, double entry and inventory, etc.).
Cash- Organizations on settlement and other bank accounts. From them, settlements are made with suppliers and buyers, with banks, financial authorities through non-cash transfers. Small amounts cash can be in the organization's cash desk within the established limit.
Funds in settlements- these are the debts of other organizations or persons to this economic entity. Such debt is called accounts receivable, and the debtors themselves - debtors. Receivables arises as a result of existing forms of payment for products, works and services in the event that their transfer to the buyer reflects payments for them. Employees of the organization can also be debtors; called responsible persons.
As part of current assets, abstract assets are also distinguished. They can be represented by short-term financial investments and losses. Losses- is the loss of assets as a result of irrational management or natural disasters. This part of the assets is completely eliminated from economic circulation. However, each enterprise has established control over losses by the time of their occurrence and the procedure for their coverage. The grouping of assets by types is shown in fig. 1.1.
Long-term and current assets, in turn, are divided as follows:
The economic resources (assets) of an economic entity are formed by attracting various sources, therefore, it has obligations to organizations and persons that have provided their assets for temporary use.
Depending on the mechanism of formation and use of obligations, there are: own capital and borrowed capital.
Equity- the most important source of formation of assets of the economy. It includes authorized capital, additional capital, Reserve capital, retained earnings , target financing.
Authorized capital (share, authorized fund)- originally invested capital. It is understood as the value of property contributed by the owners or shareholders (participants) at the time of the creation of an economic entity (contributions of the founders, the cost of fixed assets, intangible and other assets), necessary to ensure its statutory activities. The authorized capital may change.
Extra capital- own capital of the organization, formed as a result of additional contributions by the owners of funds in excess of the registered authorized capital, changes in the value of assets.
The reserve capital (fund) is formed at the expense of a part of the organization's profit and is used to cover losses resulting from extraordinary circumstances, the payment of dividends and income in case of insufficient profit.
Undestributed profits- part of the profit of the organization, remaining at its disposal as a source of financing.
Reserves for future expenses are created by organizations in order to evenly include in the expenses of the reporting period the costs of paying employees' holidays, paying bonuses for long service, and repairing fixed assets.
Target financing as a source of asset formation comes from the outside (the state and other organizations) and is used to cover the costs associated with targeted activities.
In case of insufficiency of own sources of formation of assets, organizations attract capital from outside (raised capital).
Raised capital- these are the obligations (debts) of this organization to other organizations and persons. Organizations and persons that have provided this organization with a loan of assets are called creditors, and the obligations that arose in connection with their receipt are called accounts payable. Depending on the maturities of liabilities, a distinction is made between long-term borrowed capital and short-term borrowed capital.
Long-term borrowed capital includes bank loans and loans. Long-term loans- amounts of funds received from banks for a period of more than one year to finance the organization of capital investments in fixed assets, advanced technologies, etc.
Long-term loans include amounts of funds received from the issue and sale of shares of the labor collective, bonds.
Short-term capital raised by the mechanism of formation can be combined into several groups:
- short-term loans and borrowings (liabilities to banks and other organizations for received loans and borrowings, the maturity of which does not exceed 12 months after the reporting date). All loans issued by banks are paid, repayable, urgent and targeted;
- accounts payable(debts of the enterprise to suppliers for goods and services, on promissory notes issued); the same group includes debts to their employees for accrued, but not paid wages arising due to the fact that the moment of its accrual and payment do not coincide in time. This is the same mechanism for the formation of debts to the social insurance and security bodies, to the budget for taxes;
- deferred income (funds received in advance, debt repayment for which is expected in the next reporting periods - receiving an advance for an object that will be built over several reporting periods; rent per year, etc.).
The grouping of assets by sources of education is shown in fig. 1.4.
The composition of equity and borrowed capital is shown in Figures 1.5. and 1.6.
Having studied the issue of classifying the property of an enterprise, we will give a definition of the subject of accounting.
Subject of accounting- reflection of the state and movement of assets, the sources of their formation and the results of the activity of an economic entity (organization). The content of the subject is most clearly revealed through the objects of accounting: long-term and short-term current assets, equity and borrowed capital and transactions arising in the course of economic activity.
Accounting method- a set of methods and techniques by which the subject (objects) of accounting is known. It allows you to study phenomena in motion, change, interconnection and interaction. The accounting method depends on the subject of accounting, i.e. reflected and controlled objects, as well as the tasks set for accounting and the requirements for it.
Therefore, the method cannot be considered as something frozen. The development of scientific and technological progress imposes new requirements on accounting, and this causes a change in its methods and methods. For example, the use of computer technology leads to an improvement in the ways of monitoring, controlling and registering business transactions, and collecting information.
The accounting method includes the following methods and techniques, which are commonly called elements of the accounting method: documentation and inventory, valuation and costing, accounts and double entry, balance sheet and reporting.
Documentation- a written certificate of the completed business transaction or the right to perform it. Every business transaction is documented. The document serves not only as a basis for recording transactions, but also as a way of primary observation and registration of them. Documentation serves the purposes of control, makes it possible to conduct documentary checks, ensure the safety of property.
Inventory - a way to check the compliance of the actual presence of the property of the economy in kind with accounting data: as an element of the accounting method - a means of monitoring and subsequent registration of phenomena and operations that are not reflected in the primary documentation at the time they were committed. Therefore, the inventory serves as an addition to the documentation.
Documentation and inventory are methods of primary observation of accounting objects.
Grade- the way in which the assets of an economic entity receive monetary value. The valuation of the assets of an economic entity is based on their actual cost, which is how the reality of the valuation is achieved.
To manage business processes, you need to know all the costs associated with their implementation. In this case, not only the value of each type of cost is calculated, but also total amount relating to a specific object, i.e. the cost of accounting objects is determined. The cost of accounting objects is calculated using the calculation used to control the amount of costs.
For constant monitoring of the economic processes of the organization for the state of assets and sources of their formation, it is necessary to take into account all business transactions continuously by stages of circulation, as well as in the context of individual groups and types of economic assets. In accounting, such a reflection of economic means and processes is carried out by monitoring the changes that occur with various types of property and sources of its formation, for all the costs incurred in a particular economic process.
The economic grouping of accounting objects and obtaining the necessary information about them for the purpose of current monitoring of economic activity is provided by the system of accounts. The use of accounts is explained by the fact that the information available in the documents gives only a disparate description of accounting objects, while the accounts allow you to obtain their generalized characteristics.
The reflection of business transactions in the system of accounts is carried out using a double entry, the essence of which lies in the interconnected reflection of various phenomena caused by business transactions.
Control over the entire set of objects in accounting is carried out by comparing assets with the sources of their formation. Such a comparison is called balance generalization. It is characterized by the equality of the total amount of types of funds and the sum of the sources of their formation. This equality is permanent.
The results of economic activity are contained in the reporting of the organization. Financial statements - one system information about the financial position of an economic entity for a certain period of time.
The assets of the organization are involved in economic turnover continuously, changing its composition and form of value. For management, business entities need to know what assets it has, from what sources they are created, for what purpose they are intended. These questions are answered by the balance sheet.
Balance sheet- a method of summarizing and grouping the assets of the economy and the sources of their formation on a certain date in monetary terms. As an element of the accounting method, it is characterized by the following features.
The assets of the economy and the sources of their formation are presented separately: economic resources - in the asset, and sources - in liabilities. The total of the balance sheet asset is always equal to the total of the balance sheet liability:
ASSETS = LIABILITIES.
Since liabilities represent the capital and liabilities of the organization, this equality can be represented as follows:
ASSETS = EQUITY + LIABILITIES.
In the balance sheet, assets and liabilities are presented only in value terms.
Each element of the asset and liability of the balance sheet is called a balance sheet item. Any article of the balance sheet asset allows you to get the following characteristics economic resources: what this part of the assets is embodied in, where they are used, their value.
Any article of the balance sheet liability allows you to get the following characteristics of the sources of formation of economic resources: due to what source this part of the assets was created, for what purpose they are intended, their value.
All assets and liabilities of the balance sheet, based on their economic homogeneity, are summarized in certain sections of the balance sheet.
The balance sheet asset contains two sections: non-current assets; current assets.
Liability balance consists of three sections: capital and reserves; long term duties ; short-term obligations.
Sections in the asset balance are arranged in ascending order of liquidity, and in liabilities - according to the degree of consolidation of sources.
The composition of the sections of the balance sheet and the procedure for grouping articles in them are regulated by regulations.
The balance sheet contains a set of momentary indicators characterizing the assets of the economy and the sources of their formation on a certain date.
In this way, balance sheet- this is a way of grouping the assets of the economy according to the types and sources of their formation in value terms as of a certain date.
The grouping of economic resources in the asset balance is presented in Table 1.1.
In section I of the balance sheet asset "Non-current assets" all long-term assets of an economic entity are presented: intangible assets, fixed assets, long-term financial investments, capital investments.
Articles of the "Intangible assets" group are valued in the balance sheet at their residual value. residual value of this group of assets is determined as the difference between the initial (replacement) cost and the amount of accrued depreciation.
The articles of the group “Fixed assets” are also evaluated, with the exception of the article “ Land". Depreciation is not charged for this type of asset. In the balance sheet, all fixed assets and intangible assets are presented in one section, regardless of the scope of operation.
The articles of the group “Financial investments” reflect investments of funds and other property in other economic bodies for a period of more than one year; under the article " Capital investments» - actual costs in construction in progress.
Section II of the balance sheet asset "Current assets" reflects non-current assets by several groups. In the "Reserves" group, separate articles represent current assets of the production sector. Raw materials and materials are valued in the balance at the actual procurement cost. Costs in work in progress can be valued at standard cost, at the sum of direct costs, or at actual production cost. The same section also reflects the items of circulation: finished products and goods shipped, deferred expenses, which should be valued at actual cost.
The second group of current assets are short-term financial investments in other organizations. The “Cash” group is represented by the items “Cash”, “Settlement accounts”, “Currency accounts”, “Other cash”.
The same section of the asset also reflects receivables both other organizations and persons, and employees of this economic entity.
Liabilities balance consists of three sections (Table 1.2.). Section III of the balance sheet is presented own capital, and sections IV and V reflect the attracted capital.
IN section III balance "Capital and reserves" independent articles reflect their own sources of formation of property - authorized capital, additional capital, reserve capital. The same section shows the undistributed profit of the enterprise of past years and the reporting year. Independent articles presented uncovered loss.
Articles of section IV of the balance sheet "Long-term liabilities" characterize the debt to banks on credits and loans received from other organizations for a period of more than one year.
Section V of the balance sheet "Current liabilities" combines several groups of short-term debt: borrowed funds, accounts payable, reserves for future expenses, deferred income.
In the group "Borrowed funds", debts to banks on short-term loans and loans to other enterprises are reflected as separate items.
The items of the “Accounts payable” group reflect the debt to suppliers and contractors for the inventory items received from them, to subsidiaries and affiliates, employees of the organization, the budget, and social funds.
Depending on the purpose, content and order of compilation, several types of balance sheets are distinguished.
The balance sheet characterizes in monetary terms the assets of the economy and the sources of their formation as of a certain date. The balance sheet is compiled by the accounting department of organizations by counting the balances (balances) on the accounts.
The turnover balance, in addition to the balances of assets and sources of their formation at the beginning and end of the period, contains data on their movement (debit and credit turnover) for the reporting period.
The opening balance (initial) is the first balance drawn up on the date of registration of the organization. The asset of such a balance characterizes the composition of the property of an economic entity, with which its activity begins, and in liabilities - the sources of its occurrence. The opening balance sheet contains fewer items than subsequent balance sheets that reflect the results of economic activity for a certain period of time. Before drawing up the opening balance sheet, as a rule, an inventory and assessment of the organization's available resources is carried out.
Final balance- a reporting document on the production and financial activities of the organization for a certain period of time. It is compiled on the basis of verified accounting records (reconciliation of turnovers and balances on accounts, verification of inventory of assets).
The liquidation balance sheet is intended to characterize the property status of the organization on the date of termination of its activities as a legal entity.
The preliminary balance sheet is developed in advance at the end of the reporting period, taking into account the expected changes in the composition of the organization's property. The basis for compiling such a balance sheet is the actual accounting data on the state of assets and liabilities at the time of its preparation and the expected data on business transactions that will be completed before the end of the reporting period. Pre-balance allows you to pre-set financial position organizations at the end of the reporting period.
The gross balance sheet includes regulatory items; is used for scientific research, improving the information functions of the balance, etc.
Net balance- balance sheet, from which regulatory items are excluded: "Depreciation of fixed assets", "Depreciation of intangible assets", etc. in modern conditions the value of the net balance has increased, since it allows you to determine the real value of the organization's assets. Currently, the net balance is the current reporting form.
Every day, organizations perform many business transactions that affect the value of assets and the sources of their formation. Since the balance reflects the state of the property, each operation affects the balance by changing the value of its items. Depending on the impact on the balance sheet, all business transactions are usually divided into four types.
The first type of business transactions is associated with the regrouping of the organization's assets. The first type includes operations for the receipt of funds to the current account from the cash desk or from debtors, the issuance of money from the cash desk to accountable persons, the return of unspent amounts by accountable persons to the cash desk, the release of materials from the warehouse to production, receipt from production finished products to the warehouse, shipment of finished products from the warehouse to customers, etc.
The second type of business transactions is associated with the regrouping of the obligations of the organization. The second type also includes operations to use profits to create accumulation and consumption funds.
Thus, business transactions of the second type lead to changes only in the liabilities side of the balance sheet. The total balance sheet total does not change.
The third type of business transactions is associated with an increase in property. Operations of the third type include operations for calculating wages for the organization's personnel, for crediting loans to its accounts, obtaining loans, etc.
The fourth type of business transactions is associated with a decrease (disposal) of property.
Operations of the fourth type include operations for the payment of wages to the personnel of the organization, the repayment of debts to suppliers, the budget, and social funds.
Reflecting the state of economic resources at a certain point in time, the balance sheet reveals the structure of assets and sources of their formation in the context of types and groups, allows you to determine the share of each group, their relationship and interdependence among themselves, serves as a source of information necessary to identify the most important indicators characterizing its financial condition.
According to the balance sheet, the provision with assets, the correctness of their use, the size of inventories, compliance with financial discipline, profitability of work, etc. signaling shortcomings in work and financial condition, it serves as the basis for identifying their causes.
Based on the balance sheet data, measures are developed to eliminate them, the correct use of assets for intended purpose. It gives a complete and complete picture not only of the financial condition of the enterprise at each moment, but also of the changes that have occurred over a particular period of time. The latter is achieved by comparing balance sheets for a number of reporting periods.
The organization's balance sheet contains generalized data on accounting objects as of a certain date. The operational management of an organization in order to make appropriate management decisions makes it necessary to have continuous information about the state and movement of assets and sources of their formation. In this regard, the system of accounts is used in accounting.
Account system- a method of economic grouping, current reflection and operational control over the assets of the organization and business operations.
Each account is designed to reflect a specific accounting object. On the basis of primary documents, current data on homogeneous business transactions are accumulated and systematized on the account.
The accounting accounts in relation to the balance sheet are divided into two groups: accounts for accounting for assets (asset accounts) and accounts for accounting for the sources of assets formation (source accounts).
All asset accounts are active accounts. They have the following structure: account balance (can only be debit), debit turnover (indicates the receipt of assets), credit turnover (their use, disposal).
Operations for any active account may have a ending balance (CK) greater than 0 or equal to 0, which will be reflected in the diagram as follows.
On an active account, the final balance (Sk) cannot be less than zero, since you cannot spend more assets than there were.
Active accounts include “Fixed Assets”, “Materials”, “Cashier”, “Settlement Account”, “Intangible Assets”, “Settlements with Founders”, etc.
All accounts of sources of formation of assets are passive. in a passive account initial balance is always reflected in the loan (credit balance), on the same side of the account the increase in sources is also reflected. The decrease in sources is reflected in the debit of passive accounts. When recording transactions for passive account two cases may arise.
Passive accounts include “Authorized capital”, “Settlements on short-term loans and borrowings”, “Settlements with suppliers and contractors”, “Settlements with personnel for wages”, etc.
A special group is made up of active-passive accounts, which combine the features of active and passive accounts. An example is the account “Other income and expenses”, the debit of which reflects other expenses, and the credit shows other income. Comparing the turnover on the account, we determine the balance, which can be either on the debit of the account (expenses exceeded other income), or on the credit of the account (other income is greater than other expenses). Separate accounts can have two balances at once.
There is a close relationship between accounts and balance:
- each balance sheet item, as a rule, corresponds to an account, except when individual items reflect the data of several accounts (for example, the item “Raw materials and materials” contains balances on the accounts “Materials”, “Procurement and purchase of materials”, (“Deviations in the cost of materials ”) or vice versa, balances on some accounts are shown in the balance sheet in several items (account “Settlements with suppliers and contractors”);
- accounts are divided into active and passive similarly to balance sheet items;
- balances of assets and sources of their formation are shown on the accounts on the same side as in the balance sheet;
- the sum of balances on all active accounts is equal to the total of the asset (currency) of the balance sheet, and on all passive accounts - to the total of the liability (currency) of the balance sheet;
- the balance sheet is drawn up on the basis of the data of the accounting accounts, and the accounts are opened on the basis of the balance sheet data.
All business transactions are reflected in the accounts of accounting by double entry.
double entry- a way to reflect each operation in the debit of one and the credit of another related accounts in the same amount.
The use of double entry has an objective nature and is associated with the dual nature of the reflection of business transactions. The need for double entry is expressed in four types of balance sheet changes.
Double entry gives accounting a systematic character, provides a relationship between accounts, which allows them to be combined into a single system.
Double entry is of great informational importance, as it allows obtaining information about the movement of economic resources and sources of their formation, helps to control the movement of assets and sources of their formation.
Double entry makes it possible to check the economic content of business transactions and the legitimacy of their implementation, starting from a separate operation and ending with the reflection in the balance sheet, and ensures the identification of errors in accounts. Each amount is reflected on the debit and credit of different accounts, so the turnover on the debit of all accounts must be equal to the turnover on the credit of these accounts. The violation of equality indicates the assumption of errors in the records, which must be found and corrected.
Each business transaction is reflected in the accounts of accounting by double entry. In this case, the amount of the operation is reflected in the debit of one and the credit of another account, i.e. between the accounts on which the operation is reflected, a relationship arises.
The relationship between the debit of one and the credit of another account, resulting from the double entry of a business transaction on them, is called the correspondence of accounts. Accounts between which such a relationship has arisen are called corresponding.
Designation of correspondence accounts, i.e. the names of debited and credited accounts indicating the amount for this operation is called an ACCOUNTING RECORD (transaction).
Accounting records, according to the number of accounts affected by them, are divided into simple and complex.
It is customary to call simple such accounting records in which only two accounts correspond - one for debit and the other for credit.
Complex accounting entries are those in which one debit account corresponds to several credit accounts or vice versa.
When compiling complex entries, it should be borne in mind that only the entry in which the correspondence of the accounts is clearly expressed is correct, therefore, you should not draw up an accounting entry where several debit and credit accounts are affected at the same time.
Accounting records are made on the basis of documents in which the content of a business transaction is recorded. To control the completeness of the reflection of all business transactions, accounting records are recorded in the sequence of economically heterogeneous transactions. The reflection of business transactions in chronological sequence is called a chronological record.
To determine the indicators of economic activity, all business transactions are grouped according to economically homogeneous features.
The grouping of accounts by economic content is carried out to determine the list of accounts and their homogeneous groups necessary to reflect the economic activities of a separate organization.
Requests for business transactions in a particular system are called systematic. Chronological and systematic records can be kept separately and together.
To manage business activities, it is necessary to have information about accounting objects of varying degrees of detail in terms of the amount of information. Therefore, in order to obtain data of various levels of detail, all accounts in accounting are divided into two groups: synthetic and analytical. Synthetic accounts serve for an enlarged grouping and accounting for homogeneous objects, while analytical accounts are used for detailed characteristics.
The reflection of property and processes on synthetic accounts is called synthetic accounting, and their reflection on analytical accounts is called analytical accounting.
Synthetic accounting is kept in monetary terms; analytical - three groups of meters are used. In analytical accounts reflecting commodity and material values, accounting is kept in monetary and natural meters, i.e. in quantitative terms.
Synthetic and analytical accounts are closely related. The basis of the relationship is the parallelism of entries in the accounts. The relationship between synthetic and analytical accounts is expressed as follows:
- analytical accounts are maintained to detail synthetic accounts;
- a transaction recorded on a synthetic account must also be reflected on the corresponding analytical accounts opened for this synthetic account;
- on a synthetic account, the transaction is recorded in the total amount, and on its analytical accounts - in private amounts, resulting in the same total amount;
- the entry in analytical accounts is made on the same side as in the synthetic account, i.e. their structure is the same.
Therefore, the initial and final balances, as well as the debit and credit turnovers of a synthetic account, must be equal to the total amounts of the corresponding balances and turnovers of its analytical accounts opened in its development. When summing up for the reporting period, the data of the synthetic and analytical accounts must be verified and match, which indicates the correctness of accounting.
It should be noted that some of the synthetic accounting accounts reflect funds or sources of funds that do not require further detailing. Such synthetic accounts do not have analytical accounts (“Cashier”, “Settlement account”, “Authorized capital”).
An intermediate place between synthetic and analytical accounts is occupied by sub-accounts. subaccount- a way of grouping the data of analytical accounts.
The number of synthetic accounts and sub-accounts is determined by the needs of reporting, and the number of analytical accounts - by the needs of the management of the economic body.
The data of synthetic and analytical accounts are summarized at the end of the reporting period in order to obtain summary information.
Chart of Accounts- classification of the general nomenclature of synthetic accounting indicators. The Russian Federation has developed and uses a single Chart of Accounts, approved by the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation on October 31, 2000 No. 94n.
This means that all organizations, regardless of their organizational and legal form, are required to use this Chart of Accounts for accounting. For ease of use, all accounts are summarized in 8 sections, in accordance with the grouping of accounts by economic content.
Rice. Chart of accounts structure
Instructions for its use have been developed for the chart of accounts, and typical correspondence accounts.
Thus, accounting is characterized by the formation economic information within individual economic entities on the basis of continuous and continuous registration of economic processes and phenomena; documenting business transactions; the use of special techniques and methods for their collection and processing; use as the main monetary meter.
Accounting is a regulated system based on a number of principles. Modern level its development meets the requirements of a market economy, is based on national provisions for accounting and reporting in accordance with international standards.
Foreword
The idea for this article came about as a result of communication with accountants - both in person and on the Internet. The goal is to give in a short article (an accountant, as a rule, is always busy, he does not have time to read long works) the basic concepts - both theoretical and practical - for work and further study of accounting. How successful this was is not for me to judge.
About questions. The article presents questions from tests for certification of auditors. The tests are obtained from open sites on the Internet. It is not necessary to answer all questions. There is a desire - you can think about the question, and if there is no desire, then you can not think. These questions are not always related to the material in the above section. Logic and common sense are enough to answer some questions. It is very important to understand that while common sense with accounting has not yet been canceled. I hope they don't cancel it in the future.
1. Introduction
Article 1 of the Law "On Accounting" (Federal Law No. 129-FZ of November 21, 1996) provides the following definition of accounting:
Accounting is an ordered system for collecting, registering and summarizing information in monetary terms about the property, obligations of organizations and their movement through continuous, continuous and documentary accounting of all business transactions.
The objects of accounting are the property of organizations, their obligations and business operations carried out by organizations in the course of their activities.
The cited definition can be learned by heart. Then it will be very useful when passing exams at the institute, for a certificate of an auditor, a professional accountant, or for successfully passing a test when applying for a job. He is often asked.
According to paragraph 4 of article 8 of Law No. 129-FZ, accounting of property, liabilities and business transactions is carried out by double entry on interconnected accounting accounts.
Without touching so far on the features of accounting as a system, we will focus on recording transactions (ie events, facts of economic activity) for the purposes of generalizing information. In this aspect, accounting is a special language. To learn how to speak this language, you must first learn the words and simple sentences.
The words of the accounting language are accounts. Postings - his proposals. The grammar is very simple. An offer (transaction) always consists of two words (accounts) and an amount (monetary expression) in rubles. This is called double entry. It is more difficult to understand which words can form a meaningful sentence, and which cannot. With the study of words and some sentences, we will begin. But first, some clarification about the accountant's responsibility.
Responsibility for organization accounting and legal compliance when performing business operations, Law 129-FZ (Article 6) imposes on the head. In turn, the chief accountant is responsible for the formation of accounting policies, conducting accounting, timely submission of complete and reliable financial statements, and also ensures compliance of ongoing business operations with the law, control over the movement of property and fulfillment of obligations.
Thus, it is the manager who is responsible for organizing accounting, but this responsibility ends after the necessary organizational measures are taken. Both the head and the chief accountant are responsible for compliance with the law in carrying out activities, but the main responsibility lies with the head, since the chief accountant reports to him. The chief accountant should not accept for execution and execution documents on operations that are contrary to applicable law. He is obliged to notify the head of such documents (operations) and receive an instruction to take them into account.
We also note that the chief accountant cannot be assigned duties directly related to liability for cash and other inventory items (since it is the chief accountant who must control their receipt and expenditure). The accountant is not mentioned in the list of positions of employees (Appendix 1 to the Decree of the Ministry of Labor of the Russian Federation No. 85 of December 31, 2002) with which the employer can, in accordance with Article 244 of the Labor Code, conclude agreements on full liability. Therefore, the chief accountant should not receive cash and material assets by checks and other documents. Violating this rule is allowed only in small businesses that do not have a cashier on staff. At a small enterprise, the duties of a cashier can be performed by the chief accountant on a written order (order) of the head.
Questions
Is there risk in entrepreneurship?
Only at the beginning of entrepreneurial activity;
What is accounting:
A system for collecting, registering information about the property, obligations of the organization and their movement;
orderly system collection, registration and generalization of information in monetary terms about the property, obligations of organizations and their movement through continuous, continuous and documentary accounting of all business transactions;
A system for collecting and summarizing information about accounting objects through continuous, continuous and documentary accounting of operations performed at the enterprise.
Responsibility for organizing the storage of primary accounting documents, accounting registers and financial statements is borne by:
Head of the organization;
Chief accountant of the organization;
Chief accountant together with a representative of the legal service.
2. Accounts of accounting
The current organization has owned property (things, including money, securities), as well as property rights (Article 128 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). In addition to property, the enterprise has debts (obligations) to personnel, suppliers, the state, etc. For accounting purposes, the whole variety of things, rights and obligations is divided into groups of homogeneous objects. Each such group is assigned a special code (designation), which is called an accounting account. The score includes a numeric designation and a title.
For example:
10 "Materials" - an account for accounting for the cost of materials (fuel, spare parts, metal, paper, semi-finished products, inventory, etc.);
20 "Main production" - an account for the cost of production;
26 "General running costs"- an account for accounting for management and other expenses that are not directly related to the release of products, but relate to the entire enterprise as a whole;
41 "Goods" - an account for accounting for the cost of goods;
43 "Finished products" - an account for accounting for finished products;
44 "Expenses for sale" - an account for accounting for the expenses of trade organizations, as well as expenses for the sale of products;
50 "Cashier" - an account for cash in the organization's cash desk;
51 "Settlement account" - an account for recording non-cash funds in a bank account;
60 "Settlements with suppliers and contractors" and 62 "Settlements with buyers and customers" - accounts for accounting for the relevant calculations - who, to whom and how much owes;
68 "Settlements with the budget" - an account for accounting for settlements with the budget for taxes and fees - whether the organization owes the state or it owes it;
70 "Settlements with personnel for wages" - an account for accounting for settlements with personnel for accruals and payment of wages.
In the theory of accounting, the following definition is given: an account is a way of grouping and current reflection and control over the state and movement of economic assets and sources of their formation, as well as economic processes and results of economic activity.
The two main groups of accounts are property accounts (10, 41, 50, 51, etc.) and settlement accounts (60, 62, 68, 70, etc.). In addition to them, there are regulatory, costing, matching accounts. They are designed to perform certain functions that together ensure the achievement of accounting goals.
For accounting of property not belonging to the organization, as well as reference accounting of own property transferred for use to other organizations, issued and received guarantees, etc. off-balance sheet accounts. When recording transactions on off-balance accounts double entry rule does not apply. Therefore, postings on off-balance accounts have the following form (conditional example): Debit - 150,000 rubles. - leased property valued at 150,000 rubles, Credit - 150,000 rubles. - the property is returned to the tenant.
The coding and names of the accounts are defined in the chart of accounts (Chart of accounts for accounting for the financial and economic activities of organizations, approved by order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation of October 31, 2000 No. 94n). Order No. 94n also approved the Instructions for the Application of the Chart of Accounts. This chart of accounts must be applied by all organizations with the exception of credit (banks) and budget organizations who keep records using other accounts.
Accounts corresponding to the most general, enlarged classification of homogeneous accounting objects are called synthetic. Accounting carried out on synthetic accounts (synthetic accounting) is conducted only in monetary terms.
Detailed accounting within common groups of homogeneous objects is called analytical account. Analytical accounts are opened in addition to synthetic ones for collecting, accumulating and obtaining information on each type of assets and liabilities of the organization. Obviously, the balances and turnovers of a synthetic account should always be equal to the sum of the balances (turnovers) of all of their (open within this account) analytical accounts.
The first step (level) of analytical accounting is the introduction of sub-accounts, an intermediate link between synthetic and analytical accounts. For example, according to the Instructions in the chart of accounts, on the account "Settlements with suppliers and contractors" it is necessary to take into account separately the debt to the supplier for the supplied goods and materials, the amount of advances issued and the amount of debt secured by own bills of exchange issued to the supplier. In accordance with these requirements, the corresponding sub-accounts (60.1, 60.2, etc.) are opened within the synthetic account "Settlements with suppliers and contractors".
Analytical accounting can be maintained without opening sub-accounts. For example, analytical accounting on the account "Fixed assets" is kept for each item of fixed assets, analytical accounting on the account "Settlements with personnel for wages" is kept for each employee. In this case, each item of fixed assets or each employee is a separate item of analytical accounting (account).
Accounting on analytical accounts can (and in some cases must) be kept not only in monetary terms, but also in physical terms. For example, accounting for fuel on sub-account 10.3 "Fuel" is carried out both in monetary (value) terms and in liters or tons. Parallel cost accounting and accounting in physical terms provide a link between accounting and the production process.
The general rules for constructing analytical accounting are set out in the Instructions for the Chart of Accounts. Building a specific system of analytical accounting in an organization is the task of accounting. It should be solved on the basis of accounting principles, primarily the requirement of rationality. Industry instructions can be of great help in the correct formulation of analytical accounting. In any case, you need to open only really necessary analytical accounts. It is not rational to create small analytical accounts (attributes), such as, for example, "Expenses for bank guarantee", "Collection costs", "Costs for settlement and cash services", etc. Excessive detailing of analytics increases the complexity of accounting, leads to errors and does not provide any useful information.
Question from tests for qualifying exams. You need to choose the correct answer from the options provided.
The shortage of inventories is taken into account in the credit of the account:
10 "Materials"
15 "Procurement and acquisition of material assets"
94 "Shortages and losses from damage to valuables"
5. Monetary expression. Grade
The monetary expression in the posting must correspond to the real value of the accounting object. Those. the asset is worth as much as we paid for it (excluding value added tax in the general case). That's what it is the main method of evaluation is at actual cost.
The actual cost consists not only of the amounts paid to the supplier, but also of other expenses (for transportation, installation, adjustment, etc.). For example, the actual cost of inventories (materials, raw materials, finished products, goods) may include (clause 6 PBU 5/01 "Accounting for inventories"):
amounts paid in accordance with the contract to the supplier (seller);
amounts paid to organizations for information and consulting services related to the acquisition of inventories;
customs duties;
non-refundable taxes paid in connection with the acquisition of a unit of inventory;
remuneration paid to an intermediary organization through which inventories are acquired;
costs for the procurement and delivery of inventories to the place of their use, including insurance costs. These costs include, in particular, the cost of procurement and delivery of inventories;
the costs of maintaining the procurement and storage unit of the organization, the costs of transport services for the delivery of inventories to the place of their use, if they are not included in the price of inventories established by the contract; accrued interest on loans provided by suppliers (commercial loan); interest accrued before accounting for inventories borrowed funds if they are involved in the acquisition of these stocks;
the costs of bringing inventories to a state in which they are suitable for use for the planned purposes. These costs include the costs of the organization for processing, sorting, packing and improving the technical characteristics of the received stocks, not related to the production of products, the performance of work and the provision of services;
other costs directly related to the acquisition of inventories.
In some situations, the organization incurs some costs, for which it cannot be stated with certainty that they are directly related to the formation of the value of the accounting object. In this case, the final decision remains with the accountant, his professional judgment. When making such a decision, one must be guided by the requirement of prudence (clause 7 PBU 1/98 "Accounting policy of the organization"), the essence of which is greater willingness to recognize expenses and liabilities in accounting than possible income and assets. Those. it is better to consider such costs not in the cost of the asset received, but in the current expenses of the organization.
As always, individual exceptions are possible from the general rule. For example, trading organizations may include the costs of procurement and delivery of goods to their warehouses, incurred before they are transferred for sale, to be included in the sales expenses (i.e., attributed to the debit of the account), and not taken into account in the cost of goods (according to the debit of the account ).
In addition, retailers and catering, it is allowed to evaluate the purchased goods according to selling price with separate allowance for markups (discounts). Selling value goods is formed by posting D 41 "Goods" - K 42 "Trade margin", i.e. the previously formed purchase price of the goods is increased by the amount of the trade margin.
In some cases, accounting is applied at standard (planned) prices. Deviations of standard prices from the actual cost are accumulated on special accounts and subsequently either written off to the cost of the accounting object, or to the expenses of the organization. The analysis of such deviations from the planned (normative) indicators is a powerful means of control.
The assessment of the accounting object is formed at the time of receipt organization of the object (at the time of its acceptance for accounting) and, as a general rule, is not subject to change. Revaluation at subsequent points in time is allowed only for fixed assets (in case of their reconstruction, modernization, etc., as well as by decision of the manager at market prices). It is also necessary to revaluate financial investments (for example, securities), by which the market value can be determined.
Material and production stocks (IPZ) are not revalued. If stocks are outdated, lost quality, etc., then they are reflected in the balance sheet less the allowance for depreciation of tangible assets. The reserve for the decrease in the value of material assets is formed at the expense of financial results organization (i.e. accounted for as a non-operating expense) by the amount of the difference between the current market value and the actual cost of inventories, if the latter is higher than the current market value.
The prohibition on the revaluation of an accounting object does not apply to a situation where the actual cost of an object is formed incorrectly, with violations of the requirements of accounting regulations. In this case, you need to correct the erroneous valuation using a correction posting. Another situation in which adjustment is possible is the receipt of inventories without accompanying documents (non-invoiced deliveries). Such inventories are accounted for in the accounting (conditional) assessment. After receiving the settlement documents, the estimate of the inventory is adjusted.
The rules and features of the assessment of various accounting objects are regulated by the relevant Accounting Regulations (PBU):
PBU 2/94 "Accounting for agreements (contracts) for capital construction";
PBU 3/2000 "Accounting for assets and liabilities, the value of which is expressed in foreign currency";
PBU 5/01 "Accounting for inventories";
PBU 6/01 "Accounting for fixed assets";
PBU 14/2000 "Accounting for intangible assets";
PBU 15/01 "Accounting for loans and credits and the costs of servicing them";
PBU 17/02 ""Accounting for the costs of research, development and technological work";
PBU 19/02 "Accounting for financial investments".
Questions
Mandatory
When reflecting this accounting option in the accounting policy
These costs must be included in actual cost purchased goods
When transferring goods for sale on a commission basis, they are taken into account on the account:
45 "Goods shipped"
62 "Settlements with buyers and customers"
90 "Sales"
Can an organization independently revalue materials due to inflation?
The costs of modernization and reconstruction of fixed assets are written off:
Zoom in original cost objects
For general expenses
For general production costs
For main production costs
6. Turnover balance sheet. Active and passive accounts.
Let's return to example 1. Suppose that the initial balance of the "Settlement Account" account is 10,000 rubles. Those. on the current account, the organization had this amount received from the payment by the founders of the authorized capital. Turnovers on accounts can be "collected" and visually presented in balance sheet:
Check |
Starting balance |
Turnovers |
Balance at the end |
|||
Debit |
Credit |
By debit |
By loan |
Debit |
Credit |
|
Explanation: an entry on the account "Authorized capital" (posting D 75 - K 80, then at the time of payment of shares or shares D 75 - K 51) is made at the time of registration of the organization for the amount of the authorized capital reflected in the Charter. In the example, it is assumed that the UK is equal to 10,000 rubles. and paid in full.
Obvious consequences of the double-entry method: the sum of balances (account balances) on debit is always, at any time, equal to the sum of balances on credit. The total turnover on the debit of all accounts is always equal to the total turnover on the credit of the accounts.
Therefore, if some accounts have a debit balance, other accounts will necessarily have a credit balance. Accounts that can only have a debit balance are called active. Examples of active accounts are accounts , , , . Obviously you can't take it from the checkout more money than it has. In the same way, you cannot use more materials than what was received at the warehouse.
Accounts that can only have a credit balance are called passive. Examples of passive accounts are accounts and. The classification of accounts into active and passive can be used to verify the correctness of the reflection of transactions in accounting. Many accounting programs highlight the debit balances of passive accounts or the credit balances of active accounts in red, which is a signal of accounting errors.
Question from tests for qualifying exams. You need to choose the correct answer from the options provided.
What should the balance on the account "Authorized capital" correspond to:
The size of the UK, fixed in the constituent documents of the organization;
The size of the authorized capital actually paid by the founders (participants);
Contributions of founders (participants) received to the settlement account (cash) of the organization.
7. Income and expenses
The concepts of income and expenses are defined respectively in PBU 9/99 "Income of the organization" and PBU 10/99 "Expenses of the organization".
So, according to clause 2 of PBU 9/99, d an increase in economic benefits as a result of the receipt of assets (cash, other property) and (or) the repayment of obligations, leading to an increase in the capital of this organization. At the same time, it is considered that the increase in the economic benefits of the organization occurs when the organization received an asset in payment, or there is no uncertainty regarding the receipt of the asset. Receipts from buyers of VAT amounts, receipts in the form of advances or prepayments, a deposit, a pledge, receipts of assets not related to the transfer of ownership of them (for example, from a committent), as well as in repayment of a loan provided to a counterparty, are not recognized as income.
Expenses (clause 2 PBU 10/99) a decrease in economic benefits is recognized as a result of the disposal of assets (cash, other property) and (or) the emergence of liabilities, leading to a decrease in the capital of the organization.
Income and expenses refer to the reporting period in which they took place, regardless of the actual time of receipt or payment of funds associated with these facts ( assumption of temporal certainty of business activity factors- clause 6 PBU 1/98). At the same time, income and expenses take place in the period when the conditions for their recognition are met (clause 12 of PBU 9/99 and clause 16 of PBU 10/99). The main of these conditions for recognition is the emergence of the right to receive income - for income or the occurrence of an obligation to make an expense - for expenses, and not the actual receipt or disposal of assets.
The income of the organization, depending on their nature, the conditions for obtaining and the activities of the organization, are divided into
income from ordinary activities and
other income (operating, non-operating and extraordinary income).
Quite similarly to income, the expenses of the organization are divided into
operating expenses and
other expenses (operating, non-operating and extraordinary expenses).
TO ordinary activities as a rule, include the types of activities that the organization carries out on an ongoing basis and each of which provides at least 5% of total income. However, to classify income and expenses as income (expenses) from ordinary activities, an organization may use a different indicator. Income from ordinary activities is called revenue.
Income from ordinary activities is taken into account on the credit of the "Sales" account on sub-account 90.1 "Revenue". Expenses for ordinary activities are debited from the credit of expense accounts to the debit of the account (sub-account 90.2 "Cost of sales") or to the debit of another sub-account of the account - depending on how the expenses are recorded.
As part of operating income take into account income from transactions not related to the sale of assets, for example, income from the rental of property, interest on loans granted, as well as transactions for the sale of property, for example, sales valuable papers, surplus materials, one-time sales of goods, etc. The organization either does not carry out these operations systematically, or does not have sufficient income from them to consider such income from operations as income from ordinary activities.
Operating expenses include expenses related to generating operating income, as well as interest on loans and credits received.
How non-operating income take into account the received fines, penalties, forfeits for violation of the terms of contracts, assets received free of charge, exchange differences, write-offs of accounts payable, etc. also in non-operating expenses include paid fines, penalties, forfeits for violation of the terms of contracts, received compensation for losses, written-off amounts of receivables, negative exchange differences, etc. expenses.
Operating and non-operating income (other income according to PBU 9/99) is taken into account on the credit of the account "Other income and expenses" on subaccount 91.1 "Other income". Operating and non-operating expenses are taken into account in the debit of the account (sub-account 91.2 "Other expenses").
Extraordinary incomes (expenses) include receipts (expenses) arising as the consequences of extraordinary circumstances of economic activity (natural disaster, fire, accident, nationalization, etc.). Extraordinary income includes: insurance compensation, the cost of material assets remaining from the write-off of assets unsuitable for restoration and further use, etc. Extraordinary expenses reflect the expenses incurred as a result of the listed extraordinary circumstances. Extraordinary income and expenses are recorded in the Profit and Loss account.
The stated norms PBU 9/99 and 10/99 define the most general rules for accounting and recognition of income and expenses. There may be exceptions to these rules for small businesses(SMP). Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation No. 64n dated December 21, 1998 approved Standard Recommendations for the Organization of Accounting for Small Businesses. In accordance with paragraph 20 of the Model Recommendations, small enterprises (SE) may decide not to comply with the assumption of temporal certainty of the facts of economic activity when accounting for income and expenses and use cash accounting method. In this case, the costs (expenses) associated with the production and sale of products, works, services are reflected on account 20 "Main production" only in terms of paid material assets, services, paid wages, accrued depreciation charges and other paid expenses. In turn, the fact of sale is reflected in the accounting only at the time of receipt of funds or repayment of the buyer's debt in another way (barter agreement, offset of mutual debt, etc.).
According to Article 3 federal law dated 14.06.95 No. 88-FZ "On state support small business in the Russian Federation, SMEs mean commercial organizations in the authorized capital of which the share of participation of the Russian Federation, constituent entities of the Russian Federation, public and religious organizations (associations), charitable and other funds does not exceed 25%, the share owned by one or more legal entities that are not small business entities does not exceed 25% and in which average population employees for the reporting period does not exceed the following limits:
in industry - 100 people;
in construction - 100 people;
in transport - 100 people;
in agriculture - 60 people;
in the scientific and technical sphere - 60 people;
in wholesale - 50 people;
in retail and consumer services for the population - 30 people;
in other industries and in the implementation of other activities - 50 people.
Small business entities are also understood as individuals engaged in entrepreneurial activity without forming a legal entity.
Questions from tests. You need to choose the correct answer from the options provided.
Revenue is accepted for accounting:
In terms of money, equal to receipt of cash and other property and (or) the amount of receivables
In the amount of money received
In the amount of accounts receivable.
The organization does not plan to receive income from ordinary activities (in the reporting year and in future periods), there are no agreements concluded within ordinary activities business contracts. To the debit of which account are administrative expenses of the reporting year to be debited:
What receipts in accordance with PBU 9/99 are not recognized as income of the organization:
Income from the provision for a fee for the temporary use of assets
Prepayments, advances
Revenue from the sale of goods.
Income from ordinary activities includes:
Proceeds from the sale of materials
Exchange differences
Asset revaluation amounts
Revenue from the sale of products (goods).
Penalties for violation of the terms of business contracts are reflected in the accounting reporting period, when:
There has been a breach of contractual obligations;
The amounts of penalties were received on the current account or at the cash desk of the organization;
When the amounts of sanctions are recognized by the debtor or awarded by the court for collection.
Do small business entities have the right not to comply with the principle of assuming the temporal certainty of the facts of economic activity:
Dont Have;
They have, incl. in case of non-application of the simplified accounting system;
Available only when used cash method accounting for income and expenses.
Suppose that there were no opening balances on sub-accounts (for example, in January). We get the balance sheet for the account for January:
Check/ subaccount |
Starting balance |
Turnovers |
Balance at the end |
|||
Debit |
Credit |
By debit |
By loan |
Debit |
Credit |
|
Total 90 |
Synthetic account "Sales" balance on reporting date(end of the month) does not have.
Sub-account entries are made accumulatively during a year. At the end of the reporting year, all sub-accounts opened to the "Sales" account (except for sub-account 90.9 "Profit/loss from sales") are closed by internal entries to sub-account 90.9 "Profit/loss from sales". Those. at the end of the year, after closing account 90 for December, entries are recorded: D 90.1 - K 90.9 - for the amount of all revenue received for the year from ordinary activities, D 90.9 - K 90.2 - for the cost of all finished products (goods) sold for the year, D 90.9 - K 90.3 - for the entire amount of VAT accrued for the year on revenue to buyers, etc.
At the end (and beginning) of the year, the sub-accounts 90 and the synthetic account as a whole do not have a balance!
Accounting for other receipts and expenses (operating and non-operating) on the account is carried out similarly to account accounting. Income and expenses are reflected in sub-accounts 91.1 and 91.2 accumulatively during the year. The synthetic account is "closed" monthly by writing off the profit (loss) from account 91.9 to the account and has no balance at the end of the month. At the end of the year, sub-accounts are also "closed".
The profit (loss) accumulated on the account of the organization, minus the accrued income tax (accruals of income tax on the declaration are reflected in the posting D 99 - K 68-profit tax) at the end of the year is written off to the account "Retained profit (uncovered loss". This posting, marking the beginning of a new accounting year, and is called reformation balance.
Questions from tests. You need to choose the correct answer from the options provided.
The company invoiced the buyer for the shipped products. Recorded accounting entries:
D 62 - K 91, D 91 - K 43, D 91 - K 68;
D 62 - K 90.1, D 90.1 - K 43, D 90.1 - K 68;
D 62 - K 90.1, D 90.2 - K 43, D 90.3 - K 68;
Under the exchange agreement, the products were shipped and the received materials were credited. Accounting entries made:
D 10 - K 43 (40); D 19 - K 68;
D 10 - K 90.1, D 19 - K 68, D 90.2 - K 43 (40);
D 10 - K 60, D 19 - K 60, D 62 - K 90.1, D 90.2 - K 43 (40), D 90.3 - K 68, D 60 - K 62, D 68 - K 19.
9. Accounting and civil law. Treaties
The activity of any organization is a set of transactions with other organizations (legal entities) and simply citizens (individuals) who act as participants in civil circulation. It is civil legislation that determines the legal status of participants in civil circulation, the grounds for the emergence and procedure for exercising property rights and other property rights, exclusive rights to the results of intellectual activity, regulates contractual and other obligations (clause 1, article 2 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).
Since the balance sheet of an organization takes into account its own property, rights and obligations, the peculiarities of the transfer (emergence) of property rights when different types contracts, the procedure for the assignment (assignment) of rights, the emergence and repayment of obligations. Postings on settlement transactions of an organization with its counterparties are a record of civil law norms in the language of accounting.
An agreement is a two- or multilateral transaction (Article 154 of the Civil Code) . The contract is considered concluded if its parties have reached an agreement on all essential terms. At the same time, with significant are:
Conditions on the subject of the contract,
Conditions that are named in the law or other legal acts as essential or necessary for contracts of this type,
As well as all those conditions regarding which, at the request of one of the parties, an agreement must be reached (Article 432 of the Civil Code).
The contract may be concluded in any form, unless a specific form is established by law for contracts of this type. According to the general rule of Article 161 of the Civil Code, the following transactions must be made in simple writing(with the exception of transactions requiring notarization):
Transactions of legal entities among themselves and with citizens;
Transactions of citizens among themselves for an amount exceeding at least ten times the minimum wage established by law, and in cases provided for by law, regardless of the amount of the transaction.
There may be exceptions to this general rule. For example, for a retail sales contract, an oral form is acceptable. Such an agreement is considered concluded in the proper form from the moment the seller issues the buyer a cash or sales receipt or a document confirming payment for the goods (Article 493 of the Civil Code).
In the most general case, non-compliance writing transaction deprives the parties of the right in the event of a dispute to refer to court evidence. In some cases, failure to comply with the simple written form of the transaction maybe entail its invalidity. However, such a consequence must be directly indicated in the law in relation to this type of transaction or established by agreement of the parties. The Civil Code obliges to conclude in simple written form contracts for the sale of real estate (Article 550 of the Civil Code), lease of buildings and structures (Article 651 of the Civil Code), an agreement bank deposit(Article 836 of the Civil Code) and loan agreement(Article 820 of the Civil Code), insurance contract (Article 940 of the Civil Code), etc.
The contract is concluded by sending a proposal (offer) to the other party to conclude an agreement and acceptance of this proposal (acceptance of the offer) by the other party. At the same time, according to the general rule of Article 438 of the Civil Code, the acceptance of an offer (acceptance) is recognized, among other things, by the person who received the offer, actions to fulfill the terms of the contract specified in it (shipment of goods, provision of services, performance of work, payment of the appropriate amount, etc.).
A written agreement may be entered into
way drawing up one document signed by the parties, and
way document exchange by means of postal, telegraphic, teletype, telephone, electronic or other communication, which makes it possible to reliably establish that the document comes from the party under the contract (Article 434 of the Civil Code).
Thus, drawing up a document called "Agreement" is only one of options conclusion of a contract in writing. Receiving an invoice from a supplier by fax with subsequent payment of the received invoice is also the conclusion of an agreement in writing.
IN Civil Code(Article 421) the principle of freedom of contract is enshrined. The parties have the right to conclude (or refrain from concluding) contracts, both provided for and not provided for by law or other legal acts. The parties have the full right to conclude mixed contracts containing elements various types(types) of contracts provided for by law or other legal acts. For some types of contracts, the principle of freedom of contract is limited by the requirement of Article 422 of the Civil Code that the agreement must comply with the rules binding on the parties, established by law and other legal acts ( imperative norms) in force at the time of its conclusion.
In all other cases, the terms of the contract are formulated at the discretion of the parties. At the same time, when in the legislation the condition of the contract is regulated by the norm, which is applied insofar as the agreement of the parties does not establish otherwise ( dispositive norm), the parties may, by their agreement, exclude its application or establish an agreement on the application of another condition. In the absence of such an agreement, the terms of the contract are determined by a dispositive norm. If a certain condition of the contract is not determined by the parties or by a dispositive norm, the corresponding conditions are determined by the customs of business turnover applicable to the relations of the parties. Thus, when executing the contract, one should proceed primarily from the conditions enshrined in it. If there is no condition in the contract, then the general rule, enshrined in the legislation for this type of contract. If there is no general rule, then business customs are applied (Article 5 of the Civil Code).
As an example of a dispositive norm, we mention paragraph 3 of Art. 423 GK. So, as a general rule, the contract is assumed compensated unless otherwise follows from the law, other legal acts, the content or essence of the contract.
From the above, the following conclusions can be drawn. Firstly, when concluding contracts, it is necessary to control the presence of mandatory (essential) conditions for this contract. So, for example, in a contract of sale (delivery) with the terms of payment in installments (Article 489 of the Civil Code), the essential conditions are the price of the goods, as well as the procedure, terms and amount of payment. The lease or loan agreement must contain data that allows you to definitely determine the property to be transferred, etc. Secondly, it must be remembered that some treaties require state registration(for example, lease of buildings and structures for a period of more than a year, trust management real estate etc.). Thirdly, when concluding contracts, we recommend not to try to invent something on your own, but to use well-known standard forms of contracts of the desired type. Fourthly, if you are offered to conclude an agreement, you should carefully study the option proposed by the other party and find out all the ambiguities and confusing (perhaps on purpose) wording.
Also, you should know the conditions for interpreting the contract (Article 431 of the Civil Code). When interpreting the terms of the contract, the court takes into account the literal meaning of the words and expressions contained in it. The literal meaning of the terms of the contract in case of its ambiguity is established by comparison with other terms and the meaning of the contract as a whole. If a literal reading does not make it possible to determine the content of the contract, the actual common will of the parties must be clarified, taking into account the purpose of the contract. In this case, all relevant circumstances are taken into account, including negotiations and correspondence preceding the contract, the practice established in the mutual relations of the parties, business practices, and the subsequent behavior of the parties.
And, finally, we will briefly consider the main rules governing the transfer of ownership. As a general rule, Art. 223 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, the right of ownership of the acquirer of the thing under the contract arises from the moment of its transfer unless otherwise provided by law or contract. At the same time, in accordance with Art. 224 GK, p Handing over of a thing to the acquirer is recognized as a transfer, as well as delivery to a carrier for sending to the acquirer or delivery to a communication organization for sending to the acquirer of things alienated without the obligation of delivery. The thing shall be considered handed over to the acquirer from the moment of its actual receipt into the possession of the acquirer or the person indicated by him. The transfer of a thing is equivalent to the transfer of a bill of lading or other document of title to it.
In cases where the alienation of property is subject to state registration, the acquirer's ownership right arises from the moment of such registration, unless otherwise provided by law. And under an exchange agreement, unless otherwise provided by law or an exchange agreement, the ownership of the exchanged goods passes to the parties acting under the exchange agreement as buyers, simultaneously after the fulfillment of the obligations to transfer the relevant goods by both parties (Article 570 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).
Questions from tests. You need to choose the correct answer from the options provided.
The loan agreement is:
In oral form;
In writing;
In written (notarial) form.
What is the answer about consent to conclude an agreement on other terms than that proposed in the offer?
Refusal of acceptance and at the same time a new offer;
Only refusal of acceptance;
Only a new offer.
What right deprives the parties of non-observance of the simple written form of the transaction?
The right to file a lawsuit;
The right, in the event of a dispute, to refer to confirmation of the transaction and its conditions to witness testimony;
The right to present written and other evidence.
The essential terms of the contract include:
Directly named in the law or other legal acts as essential for this type of contract;
Which change and supplement the usual conditions and acquire legal force only if they are included in the text of the contract;
Established by dispositive norms, unless the parties agree otherwise;
The organization entered into an agreement. The contract does not contain a condition for the transfer of ownership of the goods. The organization shipped its goods first. Record this business transaction for the shipment of goods on the accounting accounts:
D 90.2 - K 41;
D 45 - K 41.
10. Accounting and civil law. Examples
According to Article 454 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, under a sales contract, one party (the seller) undertakes to transfer the thing (goods) into the ownership of the other party (the buyer), and the buyer undertakes to accept this goods and pay a certain amount for it sum of money(price). At the same time, in accordance with paragraph 2 of Article 458 of the Civil Code, in in cases where the obligation of the seller to deliver the goods or transfer the goods at the place of their location to the buyer does not follow from the contract of sale, the seller's obligation to transfer the goods to the buyer is considered fulfilled at the time of delivery of the goods to the carrier or communication organization for delivery to the buyer. Simultaneously with the transfer, the risks associated with the loss or damage to the goods (Article 459 of the Civil Code) also pass to the buyer.
Thus, if the contract of sale does not contain the obligation of the seller to deliver the goods, the postings for the sale of goods should be recorded by the date the goods were transferred to the carrier (for example, the date of the consignment note):
Seller's account:
D 62 - K 90.1 - the goods (products) are sold at the price of the contract, the seller has a debt to pay for the goods (D 62).
D 90.2 - K 41 (43) - the cost of goods sold (products) is written off.
Buyer account:
D 41 (10, 01 - depending on the assets received) - D 60 - goods received;
Let us assume that, according to the contract, the ownership of the shipped goods passes to the buyer only after full payment(Article 491 of the Civil Code). Until the moment of payment, the goods remain the property of the seller, so the shipment is not related to the sale:
Seller's account at the time of shipment:
D 45 "Goods shipped" - D 41 (43) - goods (products) were shipped;
D 90.3 - K 68-VAT - VAT has been charged on sales (since 2006, VAT has been charged on the earliest of next dates: either by the date of shipment, or by the date of payment - clause 1 of article 167 of the Tax Code).
After payment:
D 51 - K 62 - payment for goods received
D 62 - K 90.1 - reflected the sale of goods (transfer of ownership)
D 90.2 - K 45 - the cost of goods sold is written off
Buyer account at the time of shipment:
D 002 - goods are accepted for safekeeping at the price of the contract. The account is an off-balance account "Inventory accepted for safekeeping". According to paragraph 2 of Article 8 of Law 129-FZ, property owned by an organization is accounted for separately from the property of other legal entities owned by this organization. For postings to off-balance accounts, double entry is not applied. The posting is recorded for the amount of the value of the goods received;
After payment:
D 60 - K 51 - payment for the goods received was transferred;
D 01 (10, 41 - depending on the received assets) - D 60 - goods accepted
D 19 - K 60 - reflects VAT presented by the seller in the invoice;
D 68-NDS - K 19 - offset VAT on the goods received.
Further, suppose that the goods are sold through an intermediary (commission agent). Under a commission agreement, one party (commission agent) undertakes, on behalf of the other party (principal), for a fee, to make one or more transactions on its own behalf, but at the expense of the principal. At the same time, under a transaction made by a commission agent with a third party, the commission agent acquires rights and becomes obligated, even if the committent was named in the transaction or entered into direct relations with the third party to execute the transaction (Article 990 of the Civil Code). The right of ownership to the goods shipped by the committent to the commission agent does not pass to the commission agent (Article 996 of the Civil Code).
Accounting with the consignor on the date of shipment:
D 45 "Goods shipped" - D 41 (43) - goods (products) were shipped; In this case, VAT is not charged, because the goods have not yet been shipped to the buyer.
On the date of sale of the goods by the commission agent:
D 76.5 (commission agent) - K 90.1 - the commission agent sold the goods (products) at the contract price;
D 90.2 - K 45 - the cost of goods sold (products) is written off.
D 90.3 - K 68-VAT - VAT was charged on sales.
D 44 - K 76.5 - reflects the debt to the commission agent for the amount of remuneration;
D 19 - K 76.5 - VAT allocated on the invoice of the commission agent
D 68-VAT - K 19 - offset VAT on the services of a commission agent;
Commission agent's account on the date of shipment:
D 004 - received goods for sale from the committent. The account is an off-balance account "Goods accepted for commission". The transaction is recorded in the amount of the cost of the goods;
On the date of sale of the goods:
K 004 - the goods transferred for sale have been shipped;
D 62 - K 76.5 - reflects the buyer's receivables and accounts payable to the committent for the goods sold;
D 76.5 - K 90.1 - reflects the sale of services for the sale of goods;
D 90.3 - K 68-VAT - VAT has been charged on the sale of services.
Questions from tests. You need to choose the correct answer from the options provided.
The committent, when shipping goods for a commission to the commission agent, makes accounting entries:
D 62 - K 90, D 90 - K 41, D 90 - K 68
D 45 - K 41, D 62 - K 90, D 90 - K 41, D 90 - K 68
11. Classification and accounting of current costs in production
Cost price is a cost estimate of the resources used in the production process and sale of products (works, services), the cost of its production and sale. The cost of production is determined in the process of its costing(calculation, evaluation).
For costing and analysis purposes, various cost classifications are used.
According to the order of accounting costs and their inclusion in the cost price, there are direct and indirect costs. Direct costs are costs that are directly related to the production of a particular product, for example, the cost of materials (including fuel, energy for production equipment), wages and social contributions production workers, depreciation of production equipment used to produce this type of product. Indirect costs apply to all types of products and include, for example, the cost of heating, lighting, maintenance and repair, production management, product marketing.
The classification of costs into direct and indirect is necessary for the correct construction of analytical cost accounting for the production of several items of products or for order-based cost accounting. Direct costs form the production cost of each type of product. To form the full cost, indirect costs are distributed by type of product (order) by calculation according to economically sound distribution methods.
In relation to production technology, costs can be classified into basic and overhead. The main costs are the costs of the technological process. Overhead costs include production maintenance and management costs.
On the basis of connection with the volume of production and for the purposes of analysis, costs (expenses) are divided into constants and variables. Fixed (conditionally fixed) costs are costs that do not depend on the volume of output. And the total amount of variable costs is determined by the product of the volume of production by the amount of specific costs per unit of output, i.e. depends linearly on the volume of output. This classification is used in the analysis.
To account for expenses, two groups of accounts are used - calculation accounts and collection and distribution accounts.
Calculation accounts are used to account for costs and calculate the cost of production in the reporting period. This group consists of accounts "Main production", 23 "Auxiliary production", 29 "Service production and farms", 28 "Rejection in production".
4) the amount of transportation costs related to the balance of unsold goods is determined as the product of the average percentage and the value of the balance of goods at the end of the month.
The resulting settlement balance on the account at the end of the month is reflected in the balance sheet on line 213 "Work in progress".
Questions from tests. You need to choose the correct answer from the options provided.
Trade organizations take into account the costs of procurement and delivery of goods to central warehouses as part of the sale costs:
Mandatory;
When reflecting this option in the accounting policy;
Such costs are necessarily included in the actual cost of purchased goods.
13. Standard wiring. Cash turnover
Visually, the turnover on accounting accounts can be represented in the form of the following simple scheme:
This diagram shows common common typical wiring. The arrow points to the debit of the account. Those. settlements with suppliers are reflected in the following entries:
D 10 - K 60 - materials (raw materials, inventory) received from the supplier, a debt has arisen to the supplier. The cost of the materials received is indicated according to the primary documents (invoices) without value added tax (VAT). If the purchased materials will be used for activities that are not subject to VAT, the cost of the materials received is reflected with VAT.
D 20 - K 60 - received from the supplier of work and services of an industrial nature. Evaluation of works (services) is carried out on the basis of contracts and acts of acceptance of works, services.
D 26 - K 60 - General business works and services received from the supplier.
D 41 - K 60 - goods received from the supplier (material assets for subsequent resale).
D 44 - K 60 - received from the supplier of work and services related to the sale of goods.
Etc. Settlements with buyers discussed above. Postings D 90.3 - K 68-VAT - VAT was charged on sales, D 68-VAT - K 51 - transferred to the VAT budget according to the declaration.
Questions from tests. You need to choose the correct answer from the options provided.
The final turnover of December written off the amount of the loss of the reporting year. The operation is reflected in the accounts of accounting:
D 84 - K 91;
D 84 - K 99:
D 99 - K 84.
14. Reporting. Balance
The balance sheet is one of the forms of accounting (financial) reporting. The balance sheet is a table made up of two parts - left (assets) and right (passives). The assets of the balance sheet show the property of the organization used in the production process, and the liabilities show the sources of formation of this property. The total of the asset is equal to the total of the liability. This total is called balance currency.
To draw up a balance, you need to transfer balances (balances) on accounts from the balance sheet to the table. The balances are transferred according to certain rules, therefore, in the theory of accounting, they speak of "balance generalization".
Balance generalization assumes:
The dual nature of the reflection of objects - both in terms of the composition of the property, and in terms of the sources of its origin;
Synthetic, generalized nature of the presentation of information as an integral system of generalized data;
The "dual nature of the reflection of objects" as a direct consequence of the double entry has already been mentioned above. And the "synthetic and generalized" nature of the presentation of information is achieved by a certain grouping of indicators in the table and the rules for transferring account balances from the balance sheet to the balance sheet.
Each element of the asset and liability balance is called an article. Articles are grouped by economic content into sections. The main feature of the grouping of articles is the terms of circulation of assets (repayment of liabilities). According to paragraph 19 of PBU 4/99 "Accounting statements of the organization", in the balance sheet, assets and liabilities should be presented with a unit, depending on the maturity (repayment) for short-term and long-term. Assets and liabilities are presented as short-term if the term of circulation (repayment) for them is not more than 12 months after the reporting date or the duration of the operating cycle, if it exceeds 12 months. All other assets and liabilities are presented as non-current.
Assets in the balance sheet are arranged according to the degree of their liquidity in ascending order of liquidity, while liabilities in liabilities are grouped by maturity and arranged in descending order of maturity.
The liquidity of an asset is the reciprocal of the time it takes to turn it into cash. Depending on the degree of liquidity, assets are divided into 4 groups:
A4 - hard-to-sell assets (non-current assets - fixed assets, intangible assets, long-term financial investments, etc.);
A3 - slow-moving assets (stocks, VAT on acquired valuables, long-term receivables and other current assets);
A2 - quickly realizable assets (short-term receivables);
A1 - the most liquid assets (short-term financial investments and cash);
Therefore, section 1 "Non-current assets" is located on top of the balance sheet asset, followed by section 2 "Current assets". In section 2, the articles are arranged as follows: Stocks - VAT on acquired valuables - Short-term receivables - Short-term financial investments - Cash - Other current assets. Thus, the general arrangement of assets in ascending order of liquidity is violated by the item "Other current assets" due to some ambiguity in its content.
In turn, liabilities are divided into 4 groups according to the degree of urgency of payment (repayment):
P4 - permanent (sustainable) liabilities (capital, including retained earnings and reserves) - these are your own sources, you do not need to return them. Permanent liabilities are grouped at the top of the balance sheet liability in section III "Capital and reserves";
P3 - long-term liabilities (with a maturity of more than 12 months) - are mainly located in section IV "Long-term liabilities". For the purposes of analysis, long-term liabilities also include deferred income and reserves for future expenses, which nevertheless are located in section V of the balance sheet;
The balance sheet is drawn up for a certain reporting date. In accordance with clause 48 of PBU 4/99, the organization must prepare interim financial statements for month, quarter on an accrual basis from the beginning of the reporting year, unless otherwise provided by the legislation of the Russian Federation. Nevertheless, usually reporting (including the balance sheet) is compiled at the end of the quarter.
Questions from tests. You need to choose the correct answer from the options provided.
Does depreciation on production fixed assets in operation change the balance sheet currency?
Doesn't change
Changes
Depends on the depreciation method;
Which of the following items of liabilities are permanent?
Own capital and equivalent funds;
Settlements with creditors;
Long-term credits and loans;
What balance sheet items characterize the value of the organization's property?
Non-current assets + current assets;
Fixed assets;
Fixed assets + intangible assets.
15. Balance. Simple examples
Example 1 The organization has just been formed. At the time of registration of the organization, the posting D 75 - K 80 - 10,000 rubles was recorded. The authorized capital is paid in the amount of 50% by the founder's contribution of cash to the current account: D 51 - K 75 - 5000 rubles. The founders are obliged to pay the second half of the authorized capital within a year from the date of registration.
The balance sheet of such a newly formed organization looks like:
Example 2 Suppose that the authorized capital of the organization is paid in full by non-cash funds by transferring a non-new computer, valued by the founders at 10,000 rubles. In general, the computer has more than 12 months, i.e. it should be classified as a fixed asset. However, since 2006, in accordance with paragraph 5 of PBU 6/01 "Accounting for fixed assets", fixed assets with a value within the limit established in the accounting policy of the organization, but not more than 20,000 rubles per unit, can be reflected in accounting and financial statements as part of inventories (IPZ). Postings are recorded in the accounting: D 75 - K 80 - 10,000 rubles, D 10 - K 75 - 10,000 rubles. The cost of inventories is written off to the expense accounts at the time of their transfer to production. Suppose that the organization is engaged in trade, the transferred computer is used for management purposes, and during the period from the moment of registration to the reporting date, the organization entered into agreements with counterparties, i.e. conducted production activities. Postings are recorded in the accounting: D 44 - K 10 - 10,000 rubles, D 90.2 - K 44 - 10,000 rubles, D 99 - K 90.9 - 10,000 rubles. (synthetic score 90
In this case, the balance sheet is equal to zero.
Questions from tests. You need to choose the correct answer from the options provided.
The balance sheet should include numerical indicators in:
Gross evaluation;
Net valuation
Settlements with debtors and creditors are reflected in the financial statements of the organization:
In amounts arising from accounting records and recognized by it as correct;
In the amounts indicated in the latest acts of reconciliation with debtors and creditors;
In amounts adjusted for the Central Bank refinancing rate as of the date of preparation of financial statements.
16. Internal control and reporting.
In progress audit the auditor should assess the level of internal control in the audited organization. In a broad sense, internal control is a set of measures that an organization takes in order to minimize both the possibility of fraud or abuse of power, as well as the possibility of transactions that violate the law, as well as the appearance of erroneous records, calculations, taxes, etc. .
Internal control involves, first of all, the construction of an appropriate organizational structure, separation of powers, a ban on combining by one person the functions of disposal and accounting, accounting and direct access to material values etc. Internal control is the main function of the chief accountant as the head of the accounting service.
In small enterprises, the entire accounting process is carried out directly by the chief accountant. Under these conditions, the separation of powers and responsibilities is impossible and the accountant himself must constantly monitor the results of his work.
What steps should be taken before preparing financial statements so as not to discover after a while that the statements were submitted with errors?
1. It is necessary to control the status of settlements for each counterparty (for accounts 60,,, and the presence or absence of an account balance). A typical mistake is that for the same counterparty, both receivables and payables under the same contract (delivery, order) are reflected.
For example, the buyer transferred an advance, which was reflected in the loan 60.1. Then they sold the products to him and reflected the debt on the debit account 62.1. And the entries for writing off the advance to pay off the debt: D 60.2 - K 62.1 were not recorded.
The source of errors is often incorrect analytical accounting. It may happen that the payment is erroneously reflected under the wrong contract (order, invoice). As a result, with fully completed settlements in accounting for one contract - unjustified accounts payable, for another in the same amount - receivables.
Another possibility for the appearance of unreasonable indicators in the calculations is the untimely reflection of expenses. For example, a bank charges a collection fee. The payment of the commission is reflected in the accounting, but not written off to the corresponding expense account.
All of the above leads to unlawful "inflating" the amounts of accounts payable and receivable and to false reporting.
2. Check the validity of the account balance for each supplier. If we exclude some special cases, then the account balances may be associated either with untimely write-offs or with the absence of a supplier invoice.
3. Check and verify the completeness of the reflection in the accounting of operations for the sale of goods, works, services. In addition, if the sale is subject to VAT, then it is possible to calculate the amount of accrued VAT for each tax period at the estimated rate (18/118 or 10/110) of the turnover on the credit of account 90.1 and reconcile the amount received with tax accruals for relevant period on the debit of account 90.3. If in some tax period these amounts do not match, which means that either the sale is incorrectly reflected or VAT is incorrectly calculated. Since line 010 of form 2 "Profit and Loss Statement" reflects net revenue (i.e. sales revenue without VAT and excises equal to the difference between turnover on account 90.1 and turnover on account 90.3), then any error in calculating VAT leads to errors when filling out the form 2.
4. Check and verify the completeness and correctness of the reflection of current expenses. Control payroll, UST, depreciation and write-off of deferred expenses (account 97), if it reflects, for example, expenses for property insurance, etc. It is necessary to check the validity of the balances of materials on the account and the timeliness of their write-off to production.
It is very important to make sure that the analytical accounting of expenses is correct, incl. operating and non-operating. You can control the analytics if you print the balance sheet (account analyzes) for expense accounts (20, 26, 91.2). Reflecting expenses without analytics can lead to incorrect completion of Form 2.
5. Fill out a property tax declaration and reflect accruals in accounting (for example, on account 91.2 or). It is very disappointing to redo all the reporting just because I forgot to calculate this tax.
6. Check the write-off of expenses to sales accounts and the validity of the cost of work in progress (account 20) or the distribution of transportation costs for the rest of the goods (account 44). Monitor the monthly closure of the account and synthetic accounts and.
7. If the reporting is filled out in the accounting program, then after downloading the form, you must clear all the fields and only then fill out the form. After compiling the balance sheet, you need to make sure that the totals of the asset and liability really match and that the balance sheet indicators are displayed for the current, and not for past period and correspond to the balance sheet data. You also need to make sure that the profit before tax figure in Form 2 matches the credit turnover on the Profit and Loss account.
Question from tests. You need to choose the correct answer from the options provided.
The date of submission of financial statements for organizations is considered:
The day of its approval in the manner prescribed by the constituent documents;
Day of submission for approval;
The date of its mailing or the date of actual transfer by ownership to the specified addresses.
Accounting statements of an organization that has separate divisions:
Should include indicators of all separate divisions;
Should include indicators of only units that are not allocated to a separate balance sheet;
Should not include performance indicators of departments.
Afterword
All rights to the text (with the exception of questions) belong to the author. Reprinting or publication is possible only with the consent of the author. Comments and suggestions on content will be gratefully received.
Yaroslav Kulibaba
LLC "REAL-AUDIT" (Moscow)
· Clarity.
Relevance
Reliability
Comparability
- a separate organization
What meters are used in accounting to reflect the property of an organization?
· Natural and monetary.
Accounting meters - natural, labor, monetary
8. The main stages of accounting are:
· Formation of primary information, classification and generalization of the received information on accounts in accounting registers, formation of reporting indicators, analysis and adoption of economic decisions.
Name the types of accounting.
management accounting (operational)
financial accounting (accounting)
tax accounting (statistical)
The main purpose of accounting.
· is to provide accounting information to internal (own) and external (third-party) users.
What group of assets does the 1C: Accounting software package belong to?
· To intangible assets.
12. The capital of the organization consists of the following:
Capital = Assets - Liabilities
authorized capital, additional capital, reserve capital, special purpose funds, retained earnings
13. The accounting method includes the following methods and techniques for organizing accounting:
Documentation and inventory
- billing and double entry
- balance sheet and reporting
- valuation and costing
The method of grouping economic property according to economic content in monetary value on a certain date is this.
· Balance sheet
What is the composition of the sources of financing of economic funds?
· Capital and reserves, long-term and short-term liabilities.
· consist of own and borrowed (borrowed) funds.
Raised capital is.
short-term, long-term bank loans, short-term and long-term loans, liabilities payable.
The accounting policy of an organization is
A set of specific methods and forms of accounting, declared by the enterprise, based on generally accepted rules and features of its activities.
What is the distinguishing feature balance sheet?
· Equality of the results of the asset and liability of the balance sheet on a certain date.
What is inventory?
· methods of monitoring (accounting and control) of economic means, sources and processes. A method of checking the compliance of the actual presence of the company's property and reconciling them with accounting data for a certain date.
Which section of the balance sheet reflects retained earnings (uncovered loss)?
21. What is the name of the capital that characterizes the debt of the founders (participants) for contributions to the authorized capital?
22. Accounting policy represents:
An internal document approved by the management of the organization.
23. To assets that do not have a physical form, but bring to the enterprise additional income for a long time include:
When is an inventory not required?
Name the stages of the business process.
Provision (supply), production, sale (sales).
What is the purpose of preparing a balance sheet?
· Summing up the results of financial and economic activities of existing economic entities on a certain date.
Which article refers to the "Short-term obligation"?
· Short-term financial obligations
· Short-term bank loans
· accounts payable
· Accrued liabilities
What is "Balance Currency"?
The total amount of ASSETS and LIABILITIES of the balance, necessarily equal to each other, that is, TOTAL ASSETS = TOTAL LIABILITIES
What is the name of the capital formed as a result of deductions from net income to cover the losses of previous years, and the accrual of dividends if the current profit is not enough for this?
Funds received for the performance of work - How did this operation affect the change in balance sheet items?
· If the money came from outside, then the assets grow along with the liabilities and the balance is maintained.
The wage obligation has been fulfilled - how did this operation affect the change in balance sheet items?
32. The main principle of financial reporting:
The principle of accrual
What are the reasons for recording business transactions in the accounts.
· Accounting documents.
Which of the following accounts is active?
When are accounts receivable recognized?
when the associated income is recognized.
36. Elements of financial reporting:
Balance;
Gains and losses report;
Statement of changes in equity;
Cash flow statement;
Notes, consisting of a summary of significant accounting policies and other explanatory notes.
37. The principle that income should be recognized when earned and expenses when incurred is called:
The principle of accrual
What section of the balance sheet does the "License Agreement" refer to?
· Long-term assets
What method is used in accounting to control the presence, movement of assets, capital and liabilities in the enterprise?
40. Borrowed capital includes:
long-term and short-term credits and loans, loans, sources of funds in settlements (accounts payable)
41. Accounting is an ordered system:
· it is an orderly system for collecting, registering and summarizing information in monetary terms about the property, obligations of the organization and their movement through continuous, continuous and documentary accounting of all business transactions.
- continuous, continuous and documentary reflection of the facts of economic activity
What are the company's obligations?
43. The property of the organization includes:
Non-current assets, current assets, Organization property (A) = investments of owners (K) + investments of creditors (O)
Which item is classified as long-term assets?
45. There are the following types of accounting meters:
Natural measuring instruments
labor meters
money meter
46. Accounting policy is:
An internal document approved by the management of the organization.
What is the main distinguishing feature of all assets?
material form
Which article refers to "Long-term asset"?
What is legal debt called? individuals to the enterprise for sold goods (services, works)?
What section of the balance sheet does the item "work in progress" belong to?
What section of the balance sheet can have a negative value of the item?
Current assets 1 section
52. Assets are:
Articles reflecting the property of the organization in terms of composition and placement
53. The first stage of processing accounting information is:
· Primary accounting represents the initial stage of the systemic perception of the registration of individual operations that characterize economic processes and phenomena occurring in the organization ( documentation)
Which balance sheet item is passive?
According to the accrual principle, income is recognized in accounting when it is earned, i.e.?
What is an "Active"?
· (from the Latin actus - action, movement) - the left side of the Balance, which reflects the value of the property of the enterprise, its resources, both tangible and intangible.
One of the qualitative characteristics of financial statements?
· Clarity.
Relevance
Reliability
Comparability
3. The liquidity of funds is ensured by the fact that:
The company's cash is the most liquid asset. Liquidity is ensured by the fact that they are able to meet obligations of any kind,
4. Accounting is carried out within the framework of:
- a separate organization
5. Accounting is an ordered system:
· it is an orderly system for collecting, registering and summarizing information in monetary terms about the property, obligations of the organization and their movement through continuous, continuous and documentary accounting of all business transactions.
- continuous, continuous and documentary reflection of the facts of economic activity
6. The property of the organization includes:
Property of the organization (A) \u003d investments of owners (K) + investments of creditors (O)
- non-current assets, current assets,