Economic schools and their teachings. Schools of Economic Theory
Ad valorem - 3
Specific - 2
Combined - 4
Alternative - 1
Definition:
Applied by decision of the customs authorities
The customs benefit rate is deducted from the unit of weight, volume, length.
Duty calculated as a percentage of the customs value of the goods.
Ad valorem and specific rates are charged at the same time.
Positive economics deals with:
Revealing meaningful processes and phenomena.
Finding ways out of the crisis
Using economic laws in solving economic problems
Determining the resources available.
Right to use
Right of disposal
Ownership
Right to prohibit harmful use
Board of Directors - iii;
State - iv
Shareholder - ii
General meeting of shareholders - i
Analysis - thinking aimed at identifying special properties and phenomena for the conclusion of special properties and phenomena.
Induction - a method of inference based on the dissemination of torii to generalize the facts
Synthesis - thinking, which is focused on identifying what is in common that connects individual phenomena.
Deduction - a method of transition from general to specific
Research on the nature and causes of the wealth of nations - (ii from the authors).
General theory of employment of interest and money - (iv from the authors).
Friedman Milton
Marshall Alfred
Smith Adam
Keynes John Meynod
The teaching of mercantilists in Russia is shared by:
Mardvinov
Pososhkov
Ordin-Nashchekin
The theory of social and market economy - (iii from the authors).
Neoclassical synthesis - (from the authors).
Samoelson
Classical school - 3 .
Mercantilism - 1 .
Marxism - 4 .
Physiocracy - 2 .
Political English Economics - (from distributors / authors)
Institutional Analysis - (iii from distributors / authors)
Riccardo
Plekhanov
Byung-bawerk
Luxury item
Essentials
Substitute product
Establish correspondences between the rights of owners and subjects of JSC:
Subjects:
Give each of the definitions a corresponding concept:
Set between titles of works and their authors.
Establish correspondences between theories and the names of the authors of these theories:
Establish the chronological order of the emergence of economic schools:
Establish correspondences between theories and distributors / authors
Consumer incomes increased from 6,000 to 15,000. At the same time, the demand for product X increased from 50,000 to 100,000. This allows us to characterize product X as :
Calculation of the coefficient of elasticity:
Example for calculating elasticity:
E- ELASTICITY |
|||
The highest product will be at a coefficient of elasticity of 1.
A more complex example for pacsome elasticity:
Find the coefficient of elasticity of demand (comes with a minus).
Costs.
table:
How many workers must be hired so that the amount of output per worker is optimal.
∆TVC / ∆Q
MC- marginal costs (in the form of a horizontal line)
Which expression represents marginal cost?
Manufactured 500 units. Average variable costs AVC are 2. Average fixed costs AFC are 0.5. Than the total costs are equal. 2 * 500 + 0.5 * 500 = 1250.
The volume of the company's output per week is 30 pieces. The costs are: raw materials 200 USD, rent of premises - 100 USD, wages of workers - 900, depreciation - 100 (denote A). Manager's salary - 500. What are the average total costs? (200 + 100 + 900 + 100 + 500) / 30 = 60.
Total costs are represented by the function: TC = 0.1 * Q ^ 3-4 * Q ^ 2 + 50 * Q + 100. Find the function of average variable costs f (AVC) = VC / Q = (TC-FC) / Q. Here FC = 100 (constant TC function). Then f (AVC) = 0.1 * Q ^ 2-4 * Q + 50.
Which of these curves does not take a U-shape ???
1. Kuznetsova L.I., Gelfand S.Yu., Popov I.G. and etc. The nutritional value canned food in tubes for feeding pilots and astronauts / Kosmich. biol. and aerospace. honey. - 1985
2. The first human space flights / Ed. M.N. Sissakian, V.I. Yazdovsky. - M .: AN SSSR, 1963 - S. 37-39.
3. Popov I.G. Food and water supply / Fundamentals of space biology and medicine: Joint Soviet-American edition. - M .: Nauka, 1974 - S. 35-70.
4. Popov I.G. Some results of studying the nutrition of astronauts in flight / Mater. XVI scientific. session Ying-ta pitan. USSR Academy of Medical Sciences / Ed. A.L. Pokrovsky. - M .: Medicine, 1969 - S. 138-140.
Main economic schools and their characteristics
Mercantilism
The essence of the teachings of the mercantilists boils down to determining the source of the origin of wealth. Mercantilists identified wealth with money. They believed that what more money in the state, the better the economy is.
Distinguish between early and late mercantilism.
Early mercantilism was based on the legislative increase in monetary wealth. The Englishman W. Stafford believed that the decision of many economic problems is based on the prohibition of calling for precious metals, restricting imports, and encouraging economic activity.
During late mercantilism, it was believed that it was necessary to sell more than buy.
Close to mercantilism is economic policy protectionism aimed at fencing national economy from competition from other states through the introduction of customs barriers.
The most famous representatives of mercantilism:
Thomas Maine (1571-1641)
Antois de Montchretien (1575-1621)
Montchretien introduced the term political economy into scientific circulation.
With the publication of his book "A Treatise on Political Economy" (1615), economic theory has been developing for more than 300 years and is still developing as a political economy.
The emergence of this termin is due to the increasing role of the state in the initial accumulation of capital and foreign trade.
Physiocrats
A new direction in the development of political economy was represented by the physiocrats, who were the spokesmen for the interests of large landowners.
Physiocrats studied the influence of natural phenomena on the economy of society. They believed that the source of wealth is labor only in agriculture.
The main representatives of the school were:
Francois Quesnay (1694-1774)
Anne Robert Turgot (1727-1781)
Classical School of Political Economy
Economic science was further developed in the works of Adam Smith (1723-1790) and David Ricardo (1772-1823).
Adam Smith became the founder of classical political economy.
The main idea in the teachings of Adam Smith is the idea of liberalism, minimal government intervention in the economy, market self-regulation based on free prices.
Smith laid the foundations of the labor theory of value, showed the importance of the division of labor as a condition for increasing productivity. His research has become the bible for Western economists.
David Ricardo continued A. Smith's theory and slightly improved it. He argued that the value and price of a commodity depends on the amount of labor expended in its manufacture; Profit is the result of the unpaid labor of the worker. His teachings formed the basis of utopian socialism.
Economic School of Utopian and Scientific Communism
Building on higher achievements classical school political economy, Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) created a theoretical concept that received the generalized name of Marxism.
Marxism or the theory of scientific socialism (communism) is represented by the formation of socialist principles: public ownership of the means of production, the absence of exploitation of human labor, equal pay for equal work, universal and full employment.
The name of Karl Marx is associated with the attempt of people to build a society without private property, a state-type economy, regulated from the center.
Marxist ideas were deeply perceived in Russia by the populist Mikhail Bakunin, the theoretician-economist and philosopher Georgy Plekhanov, and the professional revolutionary and founder of the Soviet state Vladimir Ilyich Lenin.
The main idea of the economic school of utopian and scientific communism: In the process of labor, a person alienates the results of his labor, as a result of which the cost characteristic decreases sharply.
Marginalism
In the second half of the XIX century. the theory of marginalism was formulated, which arose as a reaction to economic doctrine K. Marx, his critical understanding. It is marginalism that underlies the modern neoclassical direction economic thought.
Representatives of marginalism (schools of limiting analysis) are:
Karl Menger
Friedrich Wieser
Leon Walras
Eigen-Böhm-Bawerk
William Stanley Jevons
The main idea is the use of limiting extreme values or states that characterize not the essence of phenomena, but their change in connection with a change in other phenomena. The cost of any good or product depends on its marginal utility for the consumer.
For example: the theory of marginal utility examines the pricing aspect in relation to the efficiency of consumption of products and shows how much consumer satisfaction will change when adding a unit of the evaluated product, as opposed to the cost concept.
Neoclassical school
It arises on the basis of a synthesis of the ideas of David Ricard and Marzhenalism.
Representatives of the neoclassical school:
Alfred Marshal
Arthur Pigun
Economic economy is considered by representatives of this direction as a set of microeconomic agents wishing to obtain maximum utility at minimum costs.
Keynesianism
Keynesian direction economic theory, founded by John Keynes (1883-1946), serves as the most important theoretical justification for state regulation of a developed market economy by increasing or decreasing demand through changes in cash and non-cash money supply. With the help of such regulation, it is possible to influence inflation, employment, eliminate the uneven supply and demand of goods, suppress economic crises... The influence of economic demand on the flow of investment and on the formation of national income was studied.
J. Keynes was declared the "savior of capitalism", and his theory was proclaimed "Keynesian revolution in political economy". At the same time, Keynes borrowed a number of theoretical propositions from the arsenal of classical political economy by A. Smith and D. Ridardo, as well as from the economic theory of Marxism.
The main problem, according to Keynes, is the market capacity, the principle of demand efficiency, part of which is the concept of the multiplier, the general theory of employment and the marginal efficiency of capital.
School of Economics Institutionalism
Investigation of all economic phenomena from the side of political, methodological and legal issues.
It is characterized by a departure from the absolutization of technical factors, great attention to people, social problems.
The main idea of modern institutionalism is in asserting not just the increasing role of man as the main economic resource of post-industrial society, but also in arguing the conclusion about the general reorientation of the post-industrial system towards the comprehensive development of the individual, and in the 21st century. proclaimed the century of man.
Representatives of the school of institutionalism:
J. Commons
W. Mitchell
J. Galbraith
School of Neoconservatism (School of Monetarism)
The main principle: The economy is capable of self-regulation and the main task of the state is regulation cash flows
The founder of the school of neoconservatism is Milton Friedman.
In his view, microeconomics studies large-scale economic phenomena as well as those economic choices made by small economic units such as households, firms, and economic markets.
The subject and methods of economic theory. Economic laws, functions and categories \
The modern definition of the subject of economic science proceeds from the limited resources and satisfaction on this basis of human needs. The essence of this definition is that the subject of economic theory is the study of human behavior in conditions of limited means to achieve the goals in the field economic activity... This is the science of how people choose how to use scarce resources to produce a variety of goods and distribute them intelligently.
The original is the definition of the subject of economic theory, according to which it is a body of knowledge that answers the questions: “What? How? For whom to produce? ”. This definition combines the concept of scarcity of resources with the problem of choice that people must make in search of the most effective option production. Rational economic behavior of people is associated with minimizing costs and maximizing benefits.
Microeconomics and macroeconomics have their own research subjects. From the point of view of the object of research, these concepts are conventionally designated sections of economic theory. The subject of microeconomics is the study of the behavior of a firm, a household in market economy with their right to make a choice of economic decisions, study the impact of the state on firms, as well as analysis of the interests of individuals and the conjuncture of private markets. Macroeconomics examines the national economy as a whole, including economic ties between sectors and spheres of the economy. It analyzes the national income, the dynamics of costs and prices, unemployment and employment, etc.
An economic law is a strong, stable, essential, necessary, constantly repeating connection, interdependence of phenomena and processes of economic life. Economic laws arise and operate only in human society. They manifest themselves through the activities of people at different stages of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods.
Economic laws express the quantitative and qualitative aspects of economic phenomena and are used to measure them. They differ in their internal content, timing and scope.
Economic laws are objective, interrelated and comprehensively express the essence of the phenomenon in development. Some economic laws operate in all economic systems, others - only in some. Thus, the law of increasing labor productivity operates in all modes of production, and the law of value begins to operate at the inception of the slave-owning mode of production. The uncontrollable operation of economic laws can adversely affect the development of the social system as a whole.
One of the methods of economic theory is the logical method of studying economic processes, i.e. study of thought from the point of view of its structure and form. With the help of this method, signs and differences common to economic systems are identified, and a logical transition from simple to complex is carried out.
So, in order to reduce the action of natural forces in the economy or reduce their destructive consequences, people seek to learn logic economic development both on a micro- and macroeconomic scale.
The method of scientific abstraction consists in freeing the investigated object from the random, temporary and searching for permanent, characteristic features, in the abstraction in the process of cognition from the insignificant aspects of the economic phenomenon. The result of scientific abstraction are the concepts and categories of science. Cognition begins with the study of specific empirical material and, on the basis of general concepts, explains its diversity. This is the path of ascent from the abstract to the concrete. This method is used when there is no opportunity for economic experimentation.
The historical method in economic theory involves the study of economic processes and phenomena in time, that is, in the process of their emergence, development and death. This approach allows you to present all the features of any economic system, the mode of production, but complicates the analysis by the abundance of descriptive material.
The dialectical method of research makes it possible to identify internal contradictions in the economy as the driving force behind its development. Human society has not yet known economic systems and methods of economic management free from contradictions. With the help of the dialectical method, the ways of resolving contradictions, ways of overcoming them are determined. The severity of these contradictions makes it possible to find out when the economic system is progressing in its development, and when it slows down social progress.
Economic theory uses various tools of scientific knowledge, which include analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, comparison, analogy, hypothesis, proof.
Economic systems are a complex set of various components, for a comprehensive study of which it is necessary to first study these components, that is, to divide the phenomenon into parts - to carry out an analysis. Then it is necessary to create a holistic picture of the economic system, for which its synthesis is carried out - the combination of parts of the investigated. Analysis and synthesis are done mentally and are directly related to the logical method of economic research.
Comparison allows you to determine the similarity or difference between economic processes and phenomena. It uses economic and mathematical modeling, which in a formalized form makes it possible to predict economic phenomena, to determine their causes, patterns and consequences. Micro and macromodeling is of the greatest importance in economic science.
V economic research analogy is often used, that is, the transfer of one or a number of properties from an already known economic phenomenon to an unknown one.
The use of a hypothesis is also practiced, which is a scientifically grounded assumption about the causes or connections of phenomena and processes in the economy.
Substantiates the truth of one thought with the help of another and such an instrument of scientific knowledge in economics as a proof.
The process of updating the methods and tools of scientific knowledge of the economy knows no bounds.
The definition of the functions of economic science is associated with its subject and involves the use of it to solve not only theoretical, but also practical problems.
Economic theory primarily serves knowledge and study economic foundations human society, the study of the criteria for the functioning of its economic, production base... In this regard, the cognitive function of economic theory is of great importance. Knowledge of economics is an integral element of a high level of education, a condition for an effective economic policy. The essence of the cognitive function is to study the patterns of development of the economic system, in the analysis of its internal structure, connections and interactions, in identifying trends economic development... An illiterate handling of the economy is fraught with undesirable consequences for society, since civilized economic forms are designed for trained in economically of people. The cognitive function presupposes a deep study of economic phenomena, with special attention paid to internal processes inaccessible to superficial observation.
The practical (pragmatic) function of economics is to implement the recommendations of economists in the field of practice, in their application to production. In turn, economic practice is a source of scientific conclusions and conclusions. In practice, economic policy is directly implemented, production management is carried out, methods and methods of rational economic management are developed and tested. Since its inception, economic science expresses the needs of economic development and develops recommendations for entrepreneurs and the state. The implementation of economic reform in Russia is conditioned, in part, by the ability to use the results of world economic practice.
The methodological function is the definition, using general economic science, of the fundamental, theoretical foundations complex of all other economic sciences. Among them, there are sectoral (economics of industry, agriculture, education, etc.), functional (economics of labor, finance, etc.), as well as economic disciplines at the junction of different branches of knowledge (economic geography, demography, etc.). Economic science is the methodological basis for the emergence of, for example, environmental economics, for management and marketing. It offers tools, scientific tools for the existence of scientific research.
V modern conditions the role of the predictive function of economic science is growing. Economic theory provides a scientific basis for making forecasts, determining the prospects for economic development. This function involves the development of general criteria and indicators for the development of the economic system as a whole. In the world community, economic science has been performing a predictive function since about the middle of the twentieth century.
Some economists highlight a critical function of economics. Its essence lies in the fact that not only the achievements and shortcomings of various economic systems are revealed, but obsolete factors and elements that hinder their development are determined (for example, economic ties in the systems of slavery and feudalism). This function involves finding the differences between progressive and regressive economic structures.
Regulation is an action, an activity aimed at obtaining a predetermined result, programmed indicators. There are different approaches to the definition of the regulation problem as a fundamental problem of economic theory, which are similar conceptually, but differ in some nuances.
The regulatory process is characterized by complexity, as evidenced by the multiplicity of economic terminology denoting this problem: regulation of the economy, regulation of the market, government regulation, social regulation, regulation of economic ties and so on. Based on this, it is possible to single out individual objects of economic regulation: the economy, the market, economic ties, wages, taxes, money circulation, and so on. Purposeful impact on the object is the main task of economic regulation.
The subjects of economic regulation are those who represent, express and realize economic interests. State regulation aims to comply with the interests of the state, society as a whole, and socially unprotected segments of the population.
The purpose of economic regulation is to adapt a functioning economic system to constantly changing conditions of existence. Economic regulation can reveal the weakness of the economic mechanism in the face of a long-term perspective in a number of ways and thereby reveal its strategic failure. The development of ways and methods of regulation is a fundamental problem, since the economic mechanism in a market economy is subject to a certain order, rules, the interaction of various parts of this mechanism necessary for the economy is established.
The concept of production and its significance in the life of society. Concept and types of resources
Production can be viewed in a broader sense - as social production, in which the material plays a leading, decisive role. The concept of "social production" captures the fact that people produce not only things and material goods, but also their sociality: social relations, social institutions, spiritual values.
The mode of production is a unity of two sides - productive forces and production relations, expressing two series of human relations: relations to nature and to each other.
Historical stages in the development of production are reflected in the concepts of primitive communal, slave-owning, feudal, capitalist and socialist society.
The general and necessary components of the labor process are the object of labor, the means of labor and labor itself, which constitute the productive forces in their unity. The subject of labor is everything that a person makes his efforts to. The subject of labor is a passive element of production. It undergoes various changes and is converted into a product that a person needs.
The second element of the productive forces is the means of labor, i.e. a thing or a complex of things that a person places between himself and the object of labor and which serve as a conductor of his influences on this object. The object of labor and the means of labor, taken together, constitute the means of production. Thus, the productive forces are the means of production created by society (first of all, the tools of labor), as well as people who have the skills to work, who are able to carry out the process of producing material goods. The functioning of the means of production depends on the skill, knowledge and experience of people. Science, education and culture are of great importance here.
The productive forces change quantitatively and qualitatively. An indicator of quantitative changes is the level of development of the productive forces, expressed in the productivity of labor and technology. Qualitative changes are found in their character, in what forces of nature are used by man (for example, the power of animals or electricity) and how, in what way they are used - they are created and put into action by individual or collective labor.
A necessary aspect of production is the actual production relations, which represent the totality of material, economic relations between people. They also have an objective reality and are formed independently of the will and desire of people, but largely depend on the level and nature of the productive forces. The relations of production are the leading ones that determine all other (partly and ideological) relations. And this is not accidental, since production relations are mainly related to property. Developing in the sphere of production, property relations largely determine the relations of exchange, distribution and consumption of the products of labor. Property is not a property of things, but a special kind of relationship to the means of production.
Productive forces and relations of production are two sides of a single production process. It is possible to separate them from each other only in abstraction. Their interaction is subject to the law of conformity of production relations with the nature and level of productive forces. The essence of this correspondence lies in the fact that changes in the productive forces, and primarily in the instruments of labor, cause corresponding changes in production relations. However, this does not mean at all that every change in the productive forces is immediately reflected in production relations. The fact is that the development of the productive forces occurs continuously, while the change in production relations manifests itself mainly when one mode of production is replaced by another.
Resources are available opportunities to create goods and satisfy needs.
Resources are diverse and can be classified in different ways.
Natural resources, i.e. the company's reserves of minerals, favorable conditions for agriculture, advantageous geographical location.
Resources created and accumulated by previous generations for production and consumption, i.e. existing businesses, transport systems, residential buildings, etc.
Human resources based on their experience, qualifications, educational level, and entrepreneurial ability.
Monetary, gold and foreign exchange and other resources.
Technology and scientific and technical resources, i.e. the accumulations of society, the backlog of modern technological progress, etc.
Other resource classifications are also possible. For example, according to the alternative possibilities of their use, interchangeability, exhaustion and inexhaustibility in a given period of time, etc. However, regardless of the type of classification, all resources have one thing in common - they characterize the initial and basic prerequisite for economic activity: the availability of resources of the required quality and diversity is the initial condition for creating goods and, therefore, satisfying needs.
In economic theory, resources are usually divided into four groups:
1. natural - potentially suitable for use in production natural forces and substances, among which distinguish between "inexhaustible" and "exhaustible" (the latter are in the last place divided into "renewable" and "non-renewable");
2. material - all man-made ("man-made") means of production (which, therefore, are themselves the result of production);
3. labor - the population of working age, which in the "resource" aspect is usually assessed by three parameters: socio-demographic, vocational qualification and cultural and educational;
4.financial - cash, which society is able to allocate for the organization of production.
Classification of needs according to A. Maslow's pyramid
American psychologist Abraham Maslow throughout his life tried to prove the fact that people are constantly in the process of self-actualization. By this term, he meant a person's striving for self-development and constant realization of internal potential. Self-actualization is the highest step among needs, which make up several levels in the human psyche. This hierarchy, described by Maslow in the 50s of the 20th century, was called "Theory of Motivation" or, as it is commonly called now, the pyramid of needs. Maslow's theory, that is, the pyramid of needs has a stepped structure. The American psychologist himself explained such an increase in needs by the fact that a person cannot experience needs of a higher level until he satisfies the basic and more primitive ones. Let's take a closer look at what this hierarchy is.
Classification of needs
According to Maslow, the human needs pyramid is based on the thesis that human behavior is determined by basic needs, which can be built in the form of steps, depending on the importance and urgency of their satisfaction for a person. Let's consider them starting with the lowest.
The first step is physiological needs. A person who is not rich and does not have many benefits of civilization, according to Maslow's theory, will experience needs, primarily of a physiological nature. Agree if you choose between lack of respect and hunger, first of all, you will satisfy your hunger. Physiological needs also include thirst, the need for sleep and oxygen, and sex drive.
The second step is the need for security. A good example babies serve here. Still not having a psyche, babies at the biological level, after satisfying thirst and hunger, seek protection and calm down, only feeling the warmth of their mother nearby. The same thing happens in adulthood. In healthy people, the need for safety manifests itself in a mild form. For example, in the desire to have social guarantees in employment.
The third step is the need for love and belonging. In Maslow's pyramid of human needs, after satisfying physiological needs and ensuring safety, a person craves the warmth of friendship, family or love relationships. The goal of finding a social group that satisfies these needs is a person's most important and significant task. The desire to overcome the feeling of loneliness, according to Maslow, became a prerequisite for the emergence of all kinds of circles and clubs of interest. Loneliness contributes to social maladjustment of a person, and the emergence of serious mental illnesses.
The fourth step is the need for recognition. Every person needs to be assessed by the society of his own merits. Maslow's need for recognition is divided into a person's desire for achievement and reputation. Having achieved something in life and earning recognition and reputation for oneself, a person becomes confident in himself and in his abilities. Failure to satisfy this need, as a rule, leads to weakness, depression, a sense of despondency, which can lead to irreversible consequences.
The fifth step is the need for self-actualization (aka self-realization). According to Maslow's theory, this need is the highest in the hierarchy. A person feels the need for improvement only after the satisfaction of all lower-level needs.
Production factors, production stages and their characteristics
Factors of production are resources that must be expended in order to produce a product. Such factors of production are labor and technology (human resources), land and capital (property resources). The following definitions of production factors have been adopted:
labor - the physical and mental activity of a person, aimed at achieving a useful result;
technology - scientific methods of achieving practical goals, including entrepreneurial ability;
land - everything that nature has provided at the disposal of man for his production activities (land, minerals, water, air, forests, etc.);
capital - the accumulated stock of funds in productive, monetary and commodity forms, necessary to create material wealth.
A different interpretation of the factors of production is contained in the textbooks "Economics". It is based on the theory of three factors of production put forward by the French economist J.-B. Say. In Economics, resources are subdivided into:
1) material - land, or raw materials, and capital;
2) human - labor and entrepreneurial ability. Thus, there are four factors in neoclassical theory.
Earth. This includes all natural resources, the so-called “free benefits of nature,” used in the production process. These include, for example, resources such as arable land, forests, deposits of minerals, oil, water resources, air.
Capital. It includes all produced means of production, i.e. all kinds of tools, machines, equipment, factories, warehouses, vehicles, a sales network used in the production and delivery of goods and services to the final consumer. All these elements of capital are called investment goods in contrast to consumer goods that directly satisfy the needs of people. It should be noted that in this case, the term "capital" does not mean money, they act as financial capital and are not real capital and economic resource.
Work. This term denotes the purposeful activity of a person, the use of the totality of his physical and mental abilities to achieve a result. The work performed by a lumberjack, turner, baker, teacher, doctor, artist, scientist, etc., is combined general concept"work".
Entrepreneurial activity. Special kind human resources, which consists in the ability to most effectively use all other factors of production. This factor is highlighted in the textbooks "Economics" as a special one due to the specifics entrepreneurial activity, which is that:
1) the entrepreneur takes the initiative to combine the resources of land, capital and labor into a single process of production of goods and services. He acts as a catalyst for this process;
2) the entrepreneur takes on the difficult task of making decisions and taking responsibility for their implementation;
3) an entrepreneur is an innovator;
4) an entrepreneur is a person who takes risks.
In the era of scientific and technological revolution, the so-called specific factors of production arise. These include information, science, technology, industrial and social infrastructure. They have a special, ever-increasing significance.
"> Stages of development of economic theory.
"> (96.3 points, 1 wrong answer)
"> 1. Locate scientific schools of economics in chronological order their occurrence
"> Mercantilism -"> 1; "> Institutionalism -">4; "> the classical school of political economy -">2; ">
"> marginism -"> 3. ">
"> 2. The neoclassical direction of economic theory, whose representatives ascribe the leading role in stabilizing the economy to monetary factors, was named ..."> monetarism.
"> 3. Physiocrats believed that the wealth of society is created in ..."> agriculture.
; color: # 000000 "> 4 ">. The ideas of classical political economy were developed in the XIX century by representatives of ...">"> Marxism.
"> 5. The study of the cyclical development of the economy was engaged ..."> N. D. Kondratyev.
"> 6. Assign correspondence to scientific schools of economics and their representatives
"> Mercantilism -"> A. Montchretien; ">
"> The classical school of political economy -"> A. Smith;">
"> Monetarism -"> M. Friedman; ">
"> Institutionalism -"> T. Veblen.">
; color: # ff0000 "> 7 ">. It does not apply to modern directions of economic theory ...
"> marginalism
"> neoclassicism
"> Keynesianism
"> institutionalism
"> 8. Arrange the scientific schools of economics in the chronological order of their origin
"> the neoclassical school of political economy -"> 3;"> canonism - "> 1 ">; Keynesianism -">4 ">;
"> the classical school of political economy -">2. ">
; color: # 000000 "> 9 ">. The theory of property rights arose within ..."> neoinstitutionalism.
; color: # 000000 "> 10"> ._ ">"> AND. T. Pososhkov "> ___ is the first Russian economist to present his views in a separate work (book).
"> 11. The foundations of the theory of factors of production were laid by ..."> J. B. Say.
; color: # 000000 "> 13. "> School of Economics, which substantiated the need state regulation economy is ..."> Keynesian school.
"> 14. Speakers of Economic Thought Ancient Greece are ... -"> Plato;"> - "> Aristotle;"> - "> Xenophon.
"> 15. The direction that considers the whole complex of factors influencing the economy to be the subject of economic theory is ..."> institutionalism.
"> 16. The scientific economic directions of the 20th century include ... -"> Caseianism;"> - "> Monetarism.
"> 17. The school of economics, which considered trade as a source of wealth, is ..."> mercantilism.
"> 18. One of the representatives of the theory of marginalism is ..."> A. Marshall.
"> 20. The exponents of economic thought in the Middle Ages are ..."> Ibn Khaldun;"> - "> Thomas Aquinas.
"> 21. Establish correspondence between works and their authors
"> Treatise on taxes and fees"> - Petty">;
"> About poverty and wealth"> - Pososhkov">;
"> Treatise on Political Economy"> - Montchretien">;
"> Research on the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples -"> Smith.">
"> 22. The Nobel Prize in Economics for the development of the method" input-output "was awarded ..."> V. Leontiev.
"> 23. The foundations of the labor theory of value were laid ..."> A. Smith.
"> 24. Representatives of the classical school of political economy are ... -"> William Petty;"> - "> Adam Smith;"> - "> David Ricardo.
"> 25. The scientific economic directions of the 20th century do not include ... -"> canonism;"> - "> mercantilism.
Since ancient times, mankind has tried to understand what is the essence of economic processes and laws, how to increase productivity, which is a measure of the country's wealth. Over time, views on the features of economic processes began to accumulate in certain currents, and then - economic schools.
Economics schools Is a system of views on economic processes, which has its representatives and followers who are trying to explain the laws of development economic sphere society, suggest their own ways to overcome negative processes in it for the further development of society.
One of key questions of economists The 16th century was the question of what wealth is and how it can be increased.
In the 20th century appeared new questions: what are the laws of the country's economic development, what is the role of the state in the economy, what should be its intervention.
Let's consider how representatives of different economic schools answer these questions.
Economics schools
Mercantilism
(5th-end of 17th century)
Its representatives believed that the basis of the country's economic prosperity is wealth, namely silver and gold, obtained by the country as a result of foreign trade.
Exports must exceed imports, this will lead to a stock of gold and silver, and therefore to the well-being of the nation.
Their motto is: buy less, sell more.
The government must support its producers (protectionism).
Representatives:
Antoine de Montcrentien (Treatise on Political Economy, 1615)
Thomas Mann ("Discourse on the Trade of England with Ots-India")
Physiocrats
(2nd half of the 18th century) - believed that the source of the country's wealth is Agriculture.
For the first time, they divided the spheres of the economy according to their importance for the country. Natural resources, agriculture are given from God, and the human task is to increase them.
And since the main wealth is "from the land", then the state should not interfere with entrepreneurs, everything should go naturally.
Representatives: O. Quesnay, A. Turgot, Wieser.
Classical political economy
(18th century - 30s of the 19th century) - its representatives studied relations in the production system, objective laws of economic development, analyzed production itself, capital.
It was believed that the main sphere in the economy is production.
For the first time they formulated economic laws.
The market was considered as a self-regulating system (“the invisible hand of the market,” according to Smith).
They noted that the role of the state is only to support competition, provide communications, cost roads, and develop education.
Expounded the theory of labor value, according to which the only source of value is human activity.
They considered the production process as reproduction with its four stages: production, exchange, distribution, consumption.
K. Marx called them the classics of political economy, hence the name of the school.
Representatives: A. Smith ("Research on the nature and cause of the wealth of peoples"), D. Ricardo ("The beginning of political economy"), U Petit. S. Sismondi.
Marxism
(mid-19th century) - K. Marx developed the labor theory of value, for the first time created the doctrine of surplus value (it is appropriated by capitalists in the form of profit, which is the basis of exploitation).
He gave a definition of the socio-economic formation, basing the formation on the interaction of productive forces and production relations.
The conflict between the productive forces outstripping development and the lagging production relations can only be resolved through revolution. As a result, there is a change of formations.
The development of society is based on material production.
Representatives : K. Marx ("Capital")
Malthusianism
(late 18th - 1st quarter of the 19th century) - Malthus formulated the law of diminishing soil fertility.
The population is growing and limited resources are shrinking. The growth of the population can only be halted by misfortunes (wars, epidemics) and moral abstinence.
Representative: Thomas Malta "Essay on the Law of Population".
Marginalism
("School of marginal utility") - appeared in the second half of the 19th century.
Supporters noted that, along with the usefulness of the product, one must talk about its rarity.
Gave a definition of value from the point of view of the psychology of the buyer.
There is a hierarchy of needs.
The goal of a person is the maximum satisfaction of needs.
The choice of consumers depends on the degree of importance of the good
Representatives: W. Jevons ("Theory of Political Economy"), L. Walras ("Elements of Pure Political Economy"), K. Menger ("Foundations of Political Economy").
Neoclassical Political Economy
This is the leading trend in modern economic theory.
The object of study is the balance of management of individual economic units, the least state intervention in the economy.
They set out the theory of production costs.
The concept of equilibrium prices, studied the laws of supply and demand, conditions of elasticity of demand.
Representatives: A. Marshall ("Principles of Political Economy", 1890), A. Pigou, J.B. Clarke.
Keynesianism
(30s of the 20th century - until our time) - representatives are sure that the state should actively intervene in the economy, regulate it by stimulating investment, aggregate demand, conducting budgetary and credit policy.
Representatives: D. Keynes ("General theory of employment, interest and money")
Monetarism
(50s of the 20th century - to the present day) - representatives adhere to neoliberal views, advocate limited state intervention in the economy through the regulation of the circulation of money.
They believe that money is the main and decisive factor in the market economy. The state should carry out anti-inflationary activities.
Monetarist rule: money circulation should expand at the same rate as the growth of real GDP.
The market economy strives for stability.
Representatives: L. Friedman ("The Role of Monetary (Monetary) Policy", "Money and Economic Development")
Institutionalism
(70s of the 20th century) - it is based on the idea of the importance of the activities of institutions in making decisions on economic issues(state, legislation, public organizations and etc.).
The representatives believe that social, legal and psychological factors, and not the development of industrial relations, are the driving force behind the development of society.
Developed the theory of post-industrial society, based on which is the activity independent public institutions.
Representatives: Gelbraith ("Society of Abundance"), Euken, Veblen, A. Gobson, D. Commons, T. Verlaine, L. Erhard ("Welfare for All")
Russian School of Economics
This is a generalized name for scientists-economists who have made a contribution to the development of science.
V. Dmitriev- proposed a methodology for the application of applied mathematics in economic theory;
A. Chayanov- did a lot in the study of the theory of agrarian relations; N.Kondratyev- his theory of long waves underlies the concept of cyclical development of the economy, etc.
Note: a separate article is being prepared about the Russian economic school. Follow the publications
Prepared by: Vera Melnikova
Basic concepts
According to the prominent historian of economic thought J. Schumpeter, the first publications devoted to I. e. at. became articles of the French physiocrat Dupont de Nemour in the journal "Ephemeris" (1767, 1768). A rather serious analysis of the early economic concepts was carried out by the founder of modern economic theory A. Smith in his treatise "The Wealth of Nations" (1776).
The British scientist discusses on the pages of his book with representatives of early concepts - mercantilists and physiocrats; it was in this work that the ideas of people who were interested in economic problems earlier were synthesized, and the tasks that need to be solved were formulated. In the 19th century, economic theory emerged in the form of separate courses at the law faculties of universities, then special economic faculties appeared, and a circle of professional economists was formed.
For example, in 1805 the English economist T. Malthus became a professor new history and Political Economy at East India Company College; in 1818, the post of professor of moral philosophy and political economy appeared at Columbia University (New York); in 1819 the French scientist J.-B. Say took up the chair of industrial economics at the Paris Conservatory of Arts and Crafts. Later, political economy as a special subject began to be taught at Oxford (1825), University College London (1828), University of Dublin (1832).
In parallel with this process, the interest of economists in the history of their science is growing. In 1824-25. essays on I.E.U., the Ricardian J.R. McCulloch appear; in 1829 the French classic J.-B. Say devoted the 6th volume of his Complete Course in Practical Political Economy to the history of science. In 1837, The History of Political Economy in Europe was published by the French economist Jerome - Adolphe Blanqui (1798-1854); in 1845 - new job J. R. McCulloch Political Economy Literature; analysis of economic doctrines can be found in the book of the German economist B. Hildebrandt "The Political Economy of the Present and the Future" (1848) and a number of publications by his compatriot W. Roscher; in 1850-1868 several articles are published on the same topic by the Italian scientist Francesco Ferrara (1810-1900); the work "Essay on the History of Political Economy" (1858) was presented by the Russian economist IV Vernadsky; German philosopher E. Dühring in 1871 publishes Critique of the History of National Economy and Socialism; in 1888 a book by Dublin professor J.C. Ingram, A History of Political Economy, was published.
Among the Russian courses I. e. at. XIX century. - the beginning of the twentieth century. you can also highlight the "Essay on the History of Political Economy" (1883) by I.I. Ivanyukov, The History of Political Economy (1892) by AI Chuprov, The History of Political Economy (1900) by LV Fedorovich; also the work “History of Political Economy. Philosophical, historical and theoretical beginnings of the economy of the XIX century. " (1909) A.N. Miklashevsky. Within the framework of the book "Economic Essays", the Russian scientist V.K. Dmitriev analyzes and revises the main provisions of the theory of labor value and rent by D. Ricardo, the concept of distribution by I. von Thünen, the model of competition by O. Cournot and the main provisions of marginalism using mathematical methods.
Contribution to this area Economic knowledge was also introduced by the great English economist A. Marshall, who dedicated an appendix entitled "Development of Economic Science" to his treatise "Principles of Economic Science" (1891). The History of the Theories of Production and Distribution in English Political Economy from 1776 to 1848 by the English economist E. Kennan, published in 1893, contains an interesting interpretation of the ideas of D. Ricardo, J. and J.S. Millay, T. Malthus and others. It can be said that the formation of the history of economic science was completed in late XIX- at the beginning of the twentieth century, when this scientific discipline began to be taught at the Paris Sorbonne. Among the works of the beginning of the XX century, devoted to the I.E.U., it is necessary to highlight the "Theories of surplus value" by K. Marx, edited by K. Kautsky (1905-1910), which analyzes the theories of A. Smith, D. Ricardo, and representatives of the so-called. n. "Vulgar political economy" (including T. Malthus, J.-B. Say, J.S. Mill and others). In 1909, the first edition of the Histories of Economic Doctrines (in Russian translation - "I. e. U.") Was published by the French economists Ch. Gide and Ch. Rist. A characteristic feature of this work is the analysis of ideas not only related to the orthodox direction of economic theory; in particular, the concepts of various socialist trends are considered: sensimonists, utopians, Fabians, anarchists (including the views of M. A. Bakunin and P. A. Kropotkin). The most important work devoted to the history of mercantilist theory and retaining scientific significance to this day is the two-volume work of the Swedish economist E. Heckscher "Mercantilism" (1934). In the famous "General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money" (1936) by J. M. Keynes, an extensive 23rd chapter is devoted to a very careful analysis of the ideas of the mercantilists with whom the English economist was mentally together. The largest work in this branch of scientific knowledge is the treatise "History economic analysis»J. Schumpeter.
In 1962, the first edition was published by the American scientist Mark Blaug "Economic Thought in Retrospect", a distinctive feature of which is the mathematical interpretation of the ideas of prominent economists who did not use mathematical research methods; theoretical "guides" help to travel through the main works of A. Smith, D. Ricardo, J. S. Mill, K. Marx, A. Marshall, G. Wickstead, K. Wicksell. Among the subsequent significant works in the field of I. e. at. it is necessary to highlight the work of R. Heilbroner “Philosophers of this world. Great Economic Thinkers: Their Life, Era and Ideas ”(1953, 2000); book of the famous American economist J. Stigler "Essays on the History of Economic Theory" (1965), the posthumous publication of W. K. Mitchell's book "Types of Economic Theory: From Mercantilism to Institutionalism" (1967); The Development of Economic Thought (1971) by G. Spiegel; Pribram's History of Economic Argumentation (1982), Economic Science in Perspective (1987) J. K. Galbraith.
Economics schools
Economics schools- doctrines about building the economy in the state that have arisen at different times.
Major schools of economics
- Economic thought of antiquity and the middle ages
- Left-wing radical political economy
Brief information
There are many competing areas in economics, but the division into classical and neoclassical schools is recognized as the main division. Adam Smith (1723-1790), the founder of classical political economy, primarily explored and emphasized the importance of the concept of economic value and the distribution of wealth among classes - workers, capitalists and landowners.
The Marxist trend in political economy is one of the branches of the classical school. Marxism - Marxist economics: a branch of classical economics developed by Karl Marx (1818-1883), who gave economic thought a strong political connotation. Developing Adam Smith's concept of labor as a source of economic value (labor theory of value), K. Marx argued that in the course of the production process, capitalists receive surplus value from the labor of workers, leaving them only necessary for their existence wages... From the point of view of Marx, the capitalist economy must experience ever deeper crises that will change the consciousness of the working class, which will eventually destroy capitalism, and then the state will come under the control of the working people.
The neoclassical school, currently dominant in Western economic thought, emphasizes the importance of distributing limited resources among competing economic agents. The founders of this school - US Jevons (1835-1882) and M. Walras (1834-1910) - are called marginalists (Marginalism). In turn, neoclassical economic theory is divided into two broad areas of research: microeconomics, which analyzes the relationship between individual economic units (consumer, firm, etc.), and macroeconomics, which analyzes the interdependence between aggregated economic values, money supply, unemployment and the state. In both of these areas, the main objects of research are considered to be individual individuals and households, not classes.
The totality of the main currents of modern economic thought in the West is called the mainstream. The mainstream paradigm does not deny the important role of economic relations, Marxism and political economy in general, which in particular finds development in institutional economics, but at the same time does not consider economic relations to be the central, let alone the only object of economic science research.
The models of the economy both in the PES format and economics do not have sufficient adequacy, and their formation is to some extent subject to ideological influence, however, if we focus on practice as a criterion of truth, then the models of economics from an economic point of view are more effective in Western countries ( USA), and the TEC model - East (China).
In 2006, the authors of the book "Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything" proposed the term "wikinomics" to denote business technologies in which companies use the principles of mass collaboration and open source ideology.
The strongest scientific trend at the moment in the world is neoclassicism. The last 10 years have been marked by the flowering of New Institutionalism, but the final victory of this school in the "battle for minds" has not yet happened. Keynes' ideas also now have their active followers, which take the form new school- Neo-Keynesianism.
There was competition between the schools, but also many schools that existed at the same time did not compete with each other. Since they studied various aspects of the economy, so they could peacefully coexist at the same time.
The result of the emergence of schools of economics is economic laws applied in practice.
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