Which does not apply to the basics of economics. Types of economic systems
Economic system
Economic system(eng. Economic system) is the set of all economic processes occurring in society on the basis of the existing property relations and the economic mechanism. In any economic system, the primary role is played by production in conjunction with distribution, exchange, consumption. In all economic systems ah, production requires economic resources, and the results economic activity distributed, exchanged and consumed. At the same time, there are also elements in economic systems that distinguish them from each other:
- socio-economic relations;
- organizational and legal forms of economic activity;
- economic mechanism;
- a system of incentives and motivations for participants;
- economic ties between enterprises and organizations.
The main types of economies are listed below.
The economic system in various scientific schools
The concept of an economic system (its content, elements and structure) depends on the economic school. In the neoclassical paradigm, the description of the economic system is revealed through micro- and macroeconomic concepts. The subject of neoclassicists is defined as the study of the behavior of people who maximize their utility in an environment of limited resources with unlimited needs. The main elements are: firms, households, government.
Economic systems are also studied from the point of view of other theoretical schools directly related to economic theory... From the point of view of researchers of modern post-industrial society, postindustrial economy(neo-economics, "information society" or "knowledge society") is born as a special technological order that significantly alters the economic and social systems as a whole. In the development economics paradigm, a special group of Third World countries is distinguished, where there are a number of important regularities: institutional structure, features of macroeconomic dynamics, a special model. Thus, development economics considers a class of special economic systems. In contrast to the dominant concepts of neoclassicism and neoinstitutionalism, the historical school focuses on the historically established differences between national economic systems.
Economic systems comparison parameters
Technical, economic and post-economic parameters
Economic systems are studied from the point of view of technological orders. In terms of structure, these are: pre-industrial economic systems, industrial and post-industrial economic systems. An important parameter for post-industrial systems is the measure of the development of creative activity and its role in the economy. To measure it, they usually use measurable parameters of the level of education, for example, the proportion of people with higher education, the structure of professional employment, etc. The most important characteristic is the assessment in the economic system of measures for solving environmental problems. Demographic parameters make it possible to answer questions related to the approach of the economic system to a post-industrial society, and these parameters are directly related to: life expectancy, infant mortality, morbidity, and other parameters of the nation's health. The share of post-industrial technologies is usually calculated by the share of people employed in the production of various industries in the total mass of GDP.
Plan / Market Ratio (Resource Allocation)
These parameters are especially relevant for countries with economies in transition. The characteristics of the mechanisms of state planning of the economy, the development of commodity-money relations, measures for the development of the natural economy, the measure of the development of the shadow economy are given. Characteristics of market development: a measure of the development of market institutions, a measure of market self-organization (competition), market saturation (no deficit), market structure. Regulatory development measures: anti-monopoly regulation; measure of development state regulation(selective regulation, anti-cyclic regulation, programming); a measure of the development of regulation by public associations. A more detailed study of the role of the state in the economy is carried out in the theory of public choice, which examines the government's decision-making process, the system of social contract (constitutional economics), etc. ...
Property Relationship Comparison Options
When analyzing economic systems, a characteristic is given of the ratio of the shares of state, cooperative and private enterprises. Nevertheless, such a characteristic is formal; for a deeper characterization of the economic system, qualitative and quantitative characteristics descriptions of the essence of forms and methods of property control and its appropriation. For example, for countries with economies in transition you can give such a description by answering the following questions:
- a measure of concentration of power in the hands of the bureaucratic party-state apparatus and the isolation of the state from society (workers do not participate in the appropriation of social wealth);
- the degree of centralization / decentralization of state property ("transfer" of some management functions to the level of enterprises) and, for example, the nationalization of cooperative property;
- a measure of the decomposition of the state-bureaucratic pyramid of economic power and the formation of "closed departmental systems", strengthening of power at the local level, in the regions.
Over time, the economic system can become democratized when more powers of property management and appropriation are given to businesses and individuals.
An important characteristic of property relations is the form of ownership, what is the proportion of enterprises: fully state-owned; joint-stock enterprises, the controlling stake of which is in the hands of the state; cooperatives and collective enterprises; joint-stock enterprises, the controlling stake of which is in the hands of employees; joint-stock enterprises, where the majority is owned by individuals and private corporations; private personal enterprises using hired labor; owners based on personal labor; enterprises owned by foreigners; own public organizations; Various types joint ventures.
Comparative analysis of social parameters
The level and dynamics of real income. The "price" of the real income received (length of the working week, family working time fund, labor intensity). Consumption quality (market saturation, time spent in consumption). Share of free time, directions of its use. The quality and content of labor. Development of the social and cultural sphere, the availability of its services. Development of the scientific and educational sphere and its availability.
Comparative study of the mechanism of functioning of economic systems
Modern market economic system
The market is a complex economic system of social relations in the field of economic reproduction. It is conditioned by several principles that determine its essence and distinguish it from other economic systems. These principles are based on the freedom of a person, his entrepreneurial talents and the fair treatment of them by the state. Indeed, these principles are few - they can be counted on the fingers of one hand, but their importance for the very concept of a market economy can hardly be overestimated. Moreover, these foundations, namely: freedom of the individual and fair competition, are very closely related to the concept the rule of law... The guarantees of freedom and fair competition can be given only in the conditions of civil society and the rule of law. But the very essence of the rights acquired by a person under the rule of law is the right to freedom of consumption: every citizen has the right to arrange his life as he sees it, within the framework of his financial capacity... A person needs the rights to property to be inviolable, and in this protection of his rights he himself plays the main role, and the state assumes the role of protecting other citizens from illegal encroachments on the property of a citizen. This alignment of forces keeps a person within the law, since, ideally, the state is on his side. A law that begins to be respected, whatever it may be, becomes fair at least for the one who respects it. But, defending the rights of citizens, the state should not cross the border of both totalitarianism and chaos. In the first case, the initiative of citizens will be restrained or manifested in a perverted form, and in the second, the state and its laws can be swept away by violence. However, the "distance" between totalitarianism and chaos is quite large, and the state, in any case, must play "its" role. This role is to effectively regulate the economy. Regulation should be understood as a very wide range of measures, and the more effective its use, the higher the trust in the state.
Distinctive features:
- a variety of forms of ownership, among which private property in various forms still occupies a leading place;
- the deployment of the scientific and technological revolution, which hastened the creation of a powerful industrial and social infrastructure;
- limited government intervention in the economy, but the government's role in social sphere is still great;
- changes in the structure of production and consumption (an increase in the role of services);
- an increase in the level of education (post-secondary);
- new attitude to work (creative);
- increasing attention to the environment (limiting the reckless use of natural resources);
- humanization of the economy ("human potential");
- informatization of society (increase in the number of knowledge producers);
- small business renaissance (fast renewal and high differentiation of products);
- globalization of economic activity (the world has become a single market).
Traditional economic system
In economically weak developed countries there is a traditional economic system. This type of economic system is based on backward technology, widespread manual labor, and a multi-structured economy.
The diversity of the economy means the existence of various forms of management in a given economic system. In a number of countries, natural-communal forms based on communal farming and natural forms of distribution of the created product are preserved. Small-scale production is of great importance. It is based on private ownership of productive resources and the personal labor of their owner. In countries with a traditional system, small-scale production is represented by numerous peasant and craft holdings that dominate the economy.
In the context of a relatively underdeveloped national entrepreneurship, foreign capital often plays a huge role in the economies of the countries under consideration.
The life of society is dominated by traditions and customs illuminated for centuries, religious cultural values, caste and class divisions, restraining socio-economic progress.
Solution of key economic challenges has specific features within the framework of various structures. The traditional system is characterized by such a feature - the active role of the state. Redistributing a significant part of the national income through the budget, the state directs funds to develop infrastructure and provide social support to the poorest segments of the population. The traditional economy is based on traditions passed down from generation to generation. These traditions determine whether goods and services are produced, for whom and how. The list of goods, production technology and distribution are based on the customs of the country. The economic roles of members of society are determined by heredity and caste. This type of economy persists today in a number of so-called underdeveloped countries, into which technological progress penetrates with great difficulties, because, as a rule, it undermines the customs and traditions established in these systems.
Benefits of the traditional economy
- stability;
- predictability;
- good quality and a large number of benefits.
Disadvantages of traditional economics
- vulnerability to external influences;
- inability for self-improvement, for progress.
Distinctive features:
- extremely primitive technologies;
- predominance of manual labor;
- all key economic problems are decided in accordance with age-old customs;
- the organization and management of economic life is carried out on the basis of decisions of the council.
Traditional economic system: Burkina Faso, Burundi, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Benin. These are the least developed countries in the world. The economy is focused on Agriculture... In most countries, the population is fragmented in the form of national (popular) groups. GNP per capita does not exceed $ 400. The economies of the countries are represented mainly by agriculture, rarely by the mining industry. Everything that is produced and mined is not able to feed and provide for the population of these countries. In contrast to these states are countries with higher incomes, but also focused on agriculture - Azerbaijan, Cote d'Ivoire, Pakistan.
Administrative command system (planned)
This system prevailed earlier in the USSR, the countries of Eastern Europe, and a number of Asian states.
The characteristic features of the ACS are public (and in reality - state) ownership of practically all economic resources, monopolization and bureaucratization of the economy in specific forms, centralized economic planning as the basis of the economic mechanism.
The ACS economic mechanism has a number of features. It presupposes, firstly, the direct management of all enterprises from a single center - the highest echelons of state power, which negates the independence of economic entities. Secondly, the state fully controls the production and distribution of products, as a result of which free market relationships between individual farms. Thirdly, the state apparatus manages economic activity with the help of, mainly, administrative-administrative (command) methods, which undermines the material interest in the results of labor.
The complete nationalization of the economy causes an unprecedented in its scale monopolization of production and marketing of products. Giant monopolies, established in all areas of the national economy and supported by ministries and departments, in the absence of competition, do not care about the introduction of new products and technology. The deficit economy generated by the monopoly is characterized by the absence of normal material and human reserves in the event of a disturbance in the balance of the economy.
In countries with ACN, the solution of general economic problems had its own specific features. In accordance with the prevailing ideological principles, the task of determining the volume and structure of products was considered too serious and demanding to be passed on to the direct producers themselves - industrial enterprises, state farms and collective farms.
Centralized distribution of material goods, labor and financial resources was carried out without the participation of direct producers and consumers, in accordance with pre-selected how public goals and criteria based on central planning. A significant part of the resources, in accordance with the prevailing ideological guidelines, was directed to the development of the military-industrial complex.
The distribution of the created products among the participants in the production was strictly regulated by the central authorities by means of the universally applied tariff system, as well as centrally approved standards of funds for the payroll. This led to the prevalence of an equalizing approach to wages.
Main features:
- state ownership of practically all economic resources;
- strong monopolization and bureaucratization of the economy;
- centralized, directive economic planning as the basis of the economic mechanism.
The main features of the economic mechanism:
- direct management of all enterprises from a single center;
- the state fully controls the production and distribution of products;
- the state apparatus manages economic activities with the help of predominantly administrative-command methods.
This type of economic system is typical for: Cuba, Vietnam, North Korea. A centralized economy with an overwhelming share of the public sector is more dependent on agriculture and foreign trade. GNP per capita is slightly over $ 1,000.
Mixed system
A mixed economy is an economic system where both the state and the private sector play an important role in the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of all resources and material goods in the country. At the same time, the regulatory role of the market is complemented by the mechanism of state regulation, and private property coexists with public and state property. The mixed economy emerged in the interwar period and to this day represents the most effective form of management. There are five main tasks solved by the mixed economy:
- employment provision;
- full use of production facilities;
- stabilization of prices;
- parallel growth of wages and labor productivity;
- balance of payments equilibrium.
Distinctive features:
- the priority of the market organization of the economy;
- multisectoral economy;
- state-owned MANAGING entrepreneurship is combined with private with its full support;
- orientation of financial, credit and tax policies towards the economic growth and social stability;
- social protection of the population.
This type of economic system is typical for Russia, China, Sweden, France, Japan, Great Britain, USA.
Literature
- Kolganov A.I., Buzgalin A.V. Economic Comparative Studies: Comparative Analysis of Economic Systems: Textbook. - M .: INFRA-M, 2009. - ISBN 5-16-002023-3
- Nureyev R.M. Essays on the history of institutionalism. - Rostov n / a: "Assistance - XXI century"; Humanitarian Perspectives, 2010. - ISBN 978-5-91423-018-7
- Vidyapin V.I., Zhuravleva G.P., Petrakov N.Ya. and etc. Economic systems: the cybernetic nature of development, market management methods, coordination of the economic activities of corporations / Translated from the general editor - N.Ya. Petrakova; V.I. Vidyapina; Zhuravleva G.P .. - M .: INFRA-M, 2008. - ISBN 978-5-16-003402-7
- Dynkin A.A., Korolev I.S., Khesin E.S. and etc. World economy: Forecast until 2020 / Edited by A.A. Dynkin, I.S. Koroleva, G.I. Machavariani. - M .: Master, 2008. - ISBN 978-5-9776-0013-2
Notes (edit)
Links
- Inozemtsev V.L.'s site. Modern post-industrial society: nature, contradictions.
- Erokhina E. A. The theory of economic development, a systemic-synergetic approach.
- Liiv E. Kh. Infodynamics generalized entropy and negentropy 1997
System Is a set of elements that form a certain unity and integrity due to stable relationships and connections between elements within this system.
Economic systems Is a set of interrelated economic elements forming a certain integrity, the economic structure of society; the unity of the relations that develop about the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of economic goods. The following features of the economic system are distinguished:
- interaction of production factors;
- the unity of the phases of reproduction - consumption, exchange, distribution and production;
- leading property location.
In order to determine which type of economic system dominates in a given economy, it is necessary to determine its main components:
- what form of ownership is considered to be predominant in the economic system;
- what methods and techniques are used in the management and regulation of the economy;
- what methods are used in the most efficient distribution of resources and benefits;
- how the prices for goods and services are set (pricing).
The functioning of any economic system is carried out on the basis of organizational and economic relations that arise in the process of reproduction, that is, in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption. The forms of communication of the organization of the economic system include:
- social division of labor (performance by an employee of an enterprise of various labor duties for the production of goods or services, in other words - specialization);
- cooperation of labor (participation of different people in the production process);
- centralization (combining several enterprises, firms, organizations into a single whole);
- concentration (strengthening the position of an enterprise, firm in a competitive market);
- integration (unification of enterprises, firms, organizations, individual industries, as well as countries for the purpose of maintaining a common economy).
Socio-economic relations- these are connections between people that arise in the production process and are formed on the basis of various forms of ownership of the means of production.
One of the most common is the following classification of economic systems.
1. Traditional economic system Is a system in which all major economic issues are resolved on the basis of traditions and customs. Such an economy still exists in geographically remote countries of the world, where the population is organized according to the tribal structure (Africa). It is based on backward technology, widespread manual labor, a pronounced multi-structure of the economy (various forms of management): natural-communal forms, small-scale production, which is represented by numerous peasant and handicraft farms. Goods and technologies in such an economy are traditional, and the distribution is carried out on a caste basis. Foreign capital plays a huge role in this economy. Such a system is characterized by an active role of the state.
2. Command or administrative-planned economy- This is a system dominated by public (state) ownership of the means of production, collective economic decision-making, centralized management of the economy through state planning. The plan acts as a coordinating mechanism in such an economy. There are a number of features state planning:
- direct management of all enterprises from a single center - the highest echelons of state power, which negates the independence of economic entities;
- the state fully controls the production and distribution of products, as a result of which free market relationships between individual enterprises are excluded;
- the state apparatus manages economic activities with the help of predominantly administrative and administrative methods, which undermines material interest in the results of labor.
3. Market economy- an economic system based on the principles of free enterprise, a variety of forms of ownership of the means of production, market pricing, competition, contractual relations between business entities, limited government interference in economic activity. In the process of the historical development of human society, the prerequisites are created for strengthening economic freedom - the ability of the individual to realize his interests and abilities through vigorous activity in the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of economic goods.
Such a system presupposes the existence of a multi-structured economy, that is, a combination of state, private, joint-stock, municipal and other types of property. Each enterprise, firm, organization is given the right to decide for itself what, how and for whom to produce. At the same time, they are guided by supply and demand, and free prices arise as a result of the interaction of numerous sellers with numerous buyers. Freedom of choice, private interest form the relationship of competition. One of the main prerequisites for pure capitalism is the personal benefit of all participants in economic activity, that is, not only the capitalist-entrepreneur, but also the hired worker.
4. Mixed economy- an economic system with elements of other economic systems. This system proved to be the most flexible, adapted to changing internal and external conditions. The main features of this economic system are: socialization and nationalization of a part of the economy on a national and international scale; economic activity based on quantitative private and state property; active state. The state performs the following functions:
- supports and facilitates the functioning of the market economy (protection of competition, creation of legislation);
- improves the mechanisms of functioning of the economy (redistribution of income and wealth), regulates the level of employment, inflation, etc .;
- solved the following tasks to stabilize the economy:
a) creation of a stable monetary system;
b) ensuring full employment;
c) reduction (stabilization) of the inflation rate;
d) regulation of the balance of payments;
e) the maximum possible smoothing of cyclical fluctuations.
All of the above types of economic systems do not exist separately, but are in constant interaction, thus forming a complex system of the world economy.
An economic system is a set of interrelated elements that form an overall economic structure. It is customary to distinguish 4 types economic structures: traditional economy, command economy, market economy and mixed economy.
Traditional economics
Traditional economics based on natural production. It usually has a strong agricultural bias. The traditional economy is characterized by clannishness, legalized division into estates, castes, and isolation from the outside world. Traditions and unspoken laws are strong in traditional economics. Personal development in the traditional economy is severely limited and the transition from one social group to another, which is higher in the social pyramid, is practically impossible. The traditional economy often uses exchange in kind instead of money.
The development of technology in such a society is very slow. Now there are practically no countries left that could be classified as countries with a traditional economy. Although in some countries it is possible to distinguish isolated communities leading a traditional way of life, for example, tribes in Africa, leading a way of life that does not differ much from that of their distant ancestors. However, in any modern society the remnants of the traditions of their ancestors still survived. For example, this may refer to the celebration of religious holidays such as Christmas. In addition, there is still a division of professions into male and female. All these customs in one way or another are reflected in the economy: remember the Christmas sales and the resulting sharp increase in demand.
Command economy
Command economy... A command or planned economy is characterized by the fact that it centrally decides what, how, for whom and when to produce. The demand for goods and services is established on the basis of statistical data and plans of the country's leadership. The command economy is characterized by a high concentration of production and monopoly. Private ownership of factors of production is practically excluded, or there are significant obstacles to the development of private business.
An overproduction crisis in a planned economy is unlikely. A shortage of quality goods and services is becoming more likely. Indeed, why build two stores next to each other, when you can get by with one, or why develop more advanced equipment when you can produce equipment of poor quality - there is still no alternative. Of the positive aspects of the planned economy, it is worth highlighting the saving of resources, especially human resources. In addition, a planned economy is characterized by a quick reaction to unexpected threats - both economic and military (remember how quickly the Soviet Union was able to quickly evacuate its factories to the east of the country, this is hardly possible in a market economy).
Market economy
Market economy... The market economic system, in contrast to the command one, is based on the predominance of private property and free pricing based on supply and demand. The state does not play a significant role in the economy; its role is limited to regulating the situation in the economy through laws. The state only makes sure that these laws are respected, and any distortions in the economy are quickly corrected by the "invisible hand of the market."
For a long time, economists considered government interference in the economy harmful and argued that the market can regulate itself without external interference. however, the Great Depression refuted this claim. The fact is that the crisis could be overcome only if there was a demand for goods and services. And since not a single group of economic entities could generate this demand, the demand could appear only from the state. That is why, during crises, states begin to re-equip their armies - thereby they form the primary demand, which revives the entire economy and allows it to get out of the vicious circle.
You will learn more about the rules of a market economy from special webinars from forex broker Gerchik & Co.
Mixed economy
Mixed economy... Now there are practically no countries left with only market or command or traditional economies. Any modern economy has elements of both a market economy and a planned economy and, of course, in every country there are remnants of a traditional economy.
In the most important industries there are elements of a planned economy, for example, the production of nuclear weapons - who will entrust a private company to produce such a terrible weapon? The consumer sector is almost entirely owned by private companies, because they are better able to determine the demand for their products, as well as to see new trends in time. But some goods can only be produced in a traditional economy - folk costumes, some food products, etc., therefore, elements of the traditional economy are preserved.
To better understand how modern how mankind has learned to find answers to its main questions, it is necessary to analyze the thousand-year history of the development of the economic systems of civilization.
Depending on the method of solving the main economic problems and the type of ownership of economic resources, four can be distinguished. main types of economic systems: 1) traditional; 2) market (capitalism);3) command (socialism); 4) mixed.
The most ancient of them is the traditional economic system.
Traditional economic system - a way of organizing economic life, in which land and capital are shared by the tribe, and limited resources are allocated in accordance with long-standing traditions.
As for the ownership of economic resources, in the traditional system it was most often collective, that is, hunting grounds, arable land and meadows belonged to a tribe or community.
Over time, the main elements of the traditional economic system ceased to suit humanity. Life has shown that factors of production are used more efficiently if they are owned individuals or families, not collectively owned. In none of richest countries peace, the basis of society is not collective property. But in many of the world's poorest countries, remnants of such property have survived.
For example,the rapid development of agriculture in Russia occurred only at the beginning of the 20th century, when the reforms of P.A.Stolypin destroyed the collective (communal) ownership of land, which was replaced by the ownership of land by individual families. Then, the communists who came to power in 1917 actually restored communal land ownership, declaring the land "public property".
Having built its agriculture on collective property, the USSR was unable for 70 years of the XX century. achieve food abundance. Moreover, by the beginning of the 1980s, the food situation had become so bad that the CPSU was forced to adopt a special "Food Program", which, however, was also not implemented, although huge money was spent on the development of the agricultural sector.
On the contrary, the agriculture of the European countries, the USA and Canada, based on private ownership of land and capital, managed to solve the problem of creating food abundance. And so successfully that the farmers of these countries were able to export a considerable part of their products to other regions of the world.
Practice has shown that markets and firms are better at solving the problem of allocating limited resources and increasing the production of goods of life than councils of elders - bodies that adopted principled economic solutions in the traditional system.
That is why the traditional economic system over time has ceased to be the basis for organizing people's lives in most countries of the world. Its elements faded into the background and remained only in fragments in the form of various customs and traditions that are of secondary importance. In most countries of the world, other ways of organizing economic cooperation between people play a leading role.
Replaced by the traditional market system(capitalism) . This system is based on:
1) the right to private property;
2) private business initiative;
3) the market organization of the distribution of limited resources of society.
Private property right there is the recognized and legally protected right of an individual to own, use and dispose of a certain type and amount of limited resources (for example, a piece of land, a coal deposit or a factory), which means that and receive income from this. It is the ability to own such a type of production resources as capital, and to receive income on this basis, that determined the second, often used name of this economic system - capitalism.
Private property - recognized by society the right of individual citizens and their associations to own, use and dispose of a certain volume (part) of any kind economic resources.
For your information. At first, the right to private property was protected only by force of arms, and only kings and feudal lords were the owners. But then, having traveled a long path of wars and revolutions, mankind created a civilization in which every citizen could become a private owner if his income allowed him to acquire property.
The right to private property enables the owners of economic resources to independently make decisions about how to use them (as long as this does not harm the interests of society). At the same time, this almost unlimited freedom to manage economic resources has a downside: the owners of private property bear full economic responsibility for their chosen options for its use.
Private business initiative there is the right of each owner of production resources to independently decide how and to what extent to use them to generate income. At the same time, the well-being of each is determined by how successfully he can sell on the market the resource that he owns: his labor force, skills, products of his own hands, his own land plot, the products of his factory, or the ability to organize commercial operations.
And finally, actually markets- a certain way organized activities for the exchange of goods.
It is the markets:
1) determine the degree of success of a particular economic initiative;
2) form the amount of income that property brings to its owners;
3) dictate the proportions of the distribution of limited resources between alternative spheres of their use.
The dignity of the market mechanism is that he makes each seller think about the interests of buyers in order to achieve benefits for himself. If he does not do this, then his goods may turn out to be unnecessary or too expensive and instead of gain he will receive only losses. But the buyer is forced to reckon with the interests of the seller - he can receive the goods only by paying the price prevailing in the market for it.
Market system(capitalism) - a way of organizing economic life in which capital and land are owned by individuals and limited resources are allocated through markets.
Competitive markets have become the most successful way known to mankind to allocate limited productive resources and the benefits created with their help.
Of course, and the market system has its drawbacks... In particular, it gives rise to huge differences in income and wealth levels , when some are bathed in luxury, while others vegetate in poverty.
Such differences in income have long prompted people to interpret capitalism as an "unjust" economic system and to dream of a better organization of their lives. These dreams led to the emergence of NSIX century. social movement named Marxism in honor of its main ideologist - a German journalist and economist Karl Marx... He and his followers argued that the market system had exhausted the possibilities for its development and became a brake on further growth the welfare of mankind. Therefore, it was proposed to replace it with a new economic system - command, or socialism (from Latin societas - "society").
Command economic system (socialism) - a way of organizing economic life, in which capital and land are owned by the state, and the distribution of limited resources is carried out according to the instructions of the central government and in accordance with plans.
The birth of the command economic system was a consequence of a series of socialist revolutions , whose ideological banner was Marxism. The concrete model of the command system was developed by the leaders of the Russian Communist Party V. I. Lenin and I. V. Stalin.
According to Marxist theory mankind could sharply accelerate its path to improving welfare and eliminate differences in the individual well-being of citizens by eliminating private property, eliminating competition and conducting all economic activities of the country on the basis of a single obligatory (directive) plan, which is developed by the state leadership on a scientific basis. The roots of this theory go back to the Middle Ages, in the so-called social utopias, but its practical implementation took place precisely in the 20th century, when the socialist camp arose.
If all resources (factors of production) are declared to be the property of the whole people, and in reality they are fully disposed of by state and party officials, then this entails very dangerous economic consequences. The income of people and firms ceases to depend on how well they use limited resources how much the result of their work is really needed by society. Other criteria are becoming more important:
a) for enterprises - the degree of fulfillment and overfulfillment of planned targets for the production of goods. It was for this that the heads of enterprises were awarded orders and appointed ministers. It doesn't matter that these goods could be completely uninteresting to buyers who, if they had the freedom to choose, would prefer other goods;
b) for people - the nature of the relationship with the authorities, who distributed the most scarce goods (cars, apartments, furniture, trips abroad, etc.), or occupation of a position that opens access to "closed distributors" where such scarce goods can be bought free.
As a result, in the countries of the command system:
1) even the simplest goods needed by people turned out to be “in short supply”. “Paratroopers,” that is, residents of small towns and villages, who came with large backpacks to buy food, as there was simply nothing in their grocery stores, became a familiar picture in the largest cities;
2) the mass of enterprises constantly suffered losses, and even there was such an amazing category of them as planned-loss-making enterprises. At the same time, employees of such enterprises still regularly received wages and awards;
3) the greatest success for citizens and enterprises was to "get" some imported goods or equipment. In the queue for the Yugoslav women's boots were recorded in the evening.
As a result, the end of the XX century. became an era of deep disillusionment with the possibilities of the planned-command system, and the former socialist countries took up the difficult task of reviving private property and the system of markets.
Speaking about the planned command or market economic system, it should be remembered that they can be found in their pure form only on the pages of scientific papers. Real economic life, on the contrary, is always a mixture of elements of various economic systems.
The modern economic system of most of the developed countries of the world is precisely mixed. Many national and regional economic problems are solved here by the state.
As a rule, today the state participates in the economic life of society for two reasons:
1) some needs of society, due to their specificity (maintenance of the army, the development of laws, the organization of traffic, the fight against epidemics, etc.), it can satisfy better than possible on the basis of only market mechanisms;
2) it can mitigate the negative consequences of the activity of market mechanisms (too large differences in the wealth of citizens, damage to the environment from the activities of commercial firms, etc.).
Therefore, for the civilization of the late XX century. the mixed economic system became predominant.
Mixed economic system - a way of organizing economic life, in which land and capital are privately owned, and the distribution of limited resources is carried out both by markets and with significant participation of the state.
In such an economic system the basis is private ownership of economic resources, although in some countries(France, Germany, Great Britain, etc.) there is a fairly large public sector. It includes enterprises whose capital is wholly or partially owned by the state (for example, the German airline Lufthansa), but which: a) do not receive plans from the state; b) work according to market laws; c) forced to compete on equal terms with private firms.
In these countries the main economic issues are mainly decided by the markets. They also distribute the majority of economic resources. At the same time some of the resources are centralized and distributed by the state using command mechanisms in order to compensate for some of the weaknesses of market mechanisms (Fig. 1).
Rice. 1. The main elements of a mixed economic system (I - the sphere of action of market mechanisms, II - the sphere of action of command mechanisms, that is, control by the state)
In fig. 2 shows a scale that conventionally represents which economic systems different states belong to today.
Rice. 2. Types of economic systems: 1 - USA; 2 - Japan; 3 - India; 4 - Sweden, England; 5 - Cuba, North Korea; 6 - some countries of Latin America and Africa; 7— Russia
Here, the arrangement of the numbers symbolizes the degree of proximity of the economic systems of different countries to one type or another. The purely market system is most fully implemented in some countries.Latin America and Africa... The factors of production there are already predominantly in private ownership, and state intervention in the decision economic issues minimal.
In countries like USA and Japan, private ownership of the factors of production dominates, but the role of the state in economic life is so great that one can speak of a mixed economic system. At the same time, the Japanese economy retained more elements of the traditional economic system than the United States. This is why the number 2 (Japan's economy) stands somewhat closer to the apex of the triangle, which represents traditional system than the number 1 (US economy).
In economies Sweden and UK the role of the state in the distribution of limited resources is even greater than in the United States and Japan, and therefore the number 4 symbolizing them is to the left of the numbers 1 and 2.
In the most complete form, the command system is now preserved in Cuba and North Korea... Here, private property has been eliminated, and the state distributes all limited resources.
The existence of significant elements of the traditional economic system in the economy India and others like her countries in Asia and Africa(although the market system prevails here too) determines the placement of the corresponding figure 3.
Location Of Russia(number 7) is determined by the fact that:
1) the foundations of the command system in our country have already been destroyed, but the role of the state in the economy is still very large;
2) the mechanisms of the market system are still being formed (and are still less developed than even in India);
3) the factors of production have not yet been completely transferred to private ownership, and such an important factor of production as land is in fact collectively owned by members of former collective and state farms, which were only formally transformed into joint stock companies.
To what economic system does the further path of Russia lie?
economic system, traditional economy, centralized economy, market economy, mixed economy
So, as we have already found out, humanity constantly has to adjust its unlimited desires and limited capabilities.
Moreover, if in the conditions of a subsistence economy, people can live independently of each other, then with the division of labor and specialization, an exchange of products is necessary. No one would specialize in, say, sewing costumes or writing books if they had not hoped to trade their costumes and books for food, clothing, and other goods and services to meet their needs. The more developed the division of labor, the greater the dependence between producers and the greater the need to coordinate their activities. Such coordination should be carried out by the economic system - a certain way of organizing economic life.
What issues does the economic system solve?
Each economic system must address the following issues:
- WHAT TO PRODUCE? What needs are considered the most important and how to allocate scarce resources between the production of various goods and services?
- HOW TO PRODUCE? Having solved the first question, one should choose a production technology - to determine in what combination the factors of production will be used. If technology in a given society is not sufficiently developed, such technologies are chosen for which a relatively large contribution of labor is required. (labor intensity) and small capital contribution (capital intensity)... In the course of technological progress, the labor intensity of production decreases, and the capital intensity, as a rule, increases. The economic system must choose a method of production that allows you to get the greatest return on the available resources.
- FOR WHOM TO PRODUCE? Suppose that in the economic system the required products are determined, production resources are allocated, the best technologies are selected, and finished products are produced. How to distribute them? In what proportion to exchange?
One way or another, all these issues must be resolved. However, different economic systems solve them in different ways. The main types of economic systems include traditional, centralized (command) and market economy.
Traditional economics
Throughout most of the history of mankind, the questions of WHAT, HOW and FOR WHOM to produce, were solved in accordance with traditions and customs ("as before"). At present, in its pure form, such an economic system has been preserved among some tribes of Central Africa, South and Southeast Asia, and the Amazon valley.
In a traditional economy, customs fix not only the set of goods produced, but also the distribution of occupations. In India, for example, people were divided into castes of priests, warriors, artisans and servants. No one could choose a profession of their own accord; a person would necessarily inherit his father's craft. Thus, the distribution of the most important resources at that time - labor - was dictated by indestructible centuries-old traditions.
The same can be said about the choice of goods and technologies produced. The same products were produced from generation to generation, and the production methods remained the same as they were hundreds of years ago. On the one hand, this allowed hereditary artisans to achieve the highest level of craftsmanship, on the other hand, nothing new was invented or produced. Technological progress and an increase in production efficiency were impossible, because each artisan copied the methods of work of his teachers. It was strictly forbidden to make any improvements, every little thing in the production process was fixed in special rules, which means that labor productivity remained at the same level for centuries.
Distribution and exchange of products (FOR WHOM to produce?) In the traditional economy were also decided according to custom. It was determined what part of the harvest should be given to the feudal lord, king, church. Otherwise, agriculture, in which the overwhelming majority of people worked in the traditional economy, as a rule, remained subsistence, which means that there was no problem with the distribution of the product - it was consumed by the producers themselves. As for artisans, they most often made their products to order and knew their buyer in advance. A small portion of the produce went to the market, but there were time-honored trading rules and prices changed infrequently.
In general, the traditional economy has some attractive features - it ensures the stability of society and its complete predictability, good quality and sometimes even high quality of the goods produced, the variety of which is, however, very limited.
On the other hand, the traditional economy is defenseless against any external changes, such as climate change, outside attack. The old traditions do not correspond to the new conditions, and the formation of new ones takes centuries. A striking example: the traditional pastoralism of North Africans led to the disappearance of vegetation and the formation of the Sahara Desert. Apparently, with a more flexible economic system, this process could have been, if not completely prevented, then at least significantly slowed down.
And, of course, a huge drawback of traditional economics is its inability to improve and progress. The population in such an economy should satisfy only a minimum of constant basic needs and not strive for more.
Centralized (command) economy
In this economic system, decisions about WHAT, HOW and FOR WHOM to produce are made from a single center, which is usually the head of state. The command economy existed in a relatively pure form, for example, in the state of the ancient Incas. Many centuries later, a similar economic system developed in the Soviet Union and other countries that, under the influence of the USSR, took the "socialist path." Currently, the command economy can only be found in Cuba and North Korea.
In a centralized economy, all material resources and products of production usually belong to the state. As for the workers, they are subordinate to a government official, he is a more important official, and so on up the administrative ladder up to the supreme ruler, no matter what his name is: pharaoh, emperor or general secretary of the ruling party.
The coordination of economic activity in a centralized economy occurs with the help of plans, therefore such an economy is also called planned. The planning process goes something like this. At the very top of the state pyramid, it is determined how much of a given product, say, cars, should be produced on a national scale per year. Then a special planning authority(in the USSR it was the State Planning Committee) calculates how much steel, plastics, rubber and other resources will be required to produce all the planned vehicles. The next step is to calculate the needs for electricity, coal, oil and other raw materials for the production of these resources.
This procedure is repeated with each type of product. Then it is calculated how much steel should be produced, say, for the production of all products, and this figure is communicated to the Ministry of Ferrous Metallurgy. The same thing happens with all other resources. Further, the planning process descends from the State Planning Commission to the line ministries. Suppose the Ministry of Ferrous Metallurgy receives a task to produce a certain amount of pig iron, steel, rolled products in a year. different types... The ministry, in turn, schedules production targets for all factories subordinate to it, indicating how much of which product each factory should deliver in each quarter of the next year. The director of the plant distributes his plan to the shops, the shop to the sections, and so on, right down to the steelworker himself.
The advantage of a planned economy is the ability to quickly focus all the resources of society on the "direction of the main blow." This is very important during wars, major natural disasters, and also allows you to move forward in the selected area.
Therefore, for example, the Soviet Union at one time was able to quickly implement a program of space exploration. However, at the same time, other sectors of the economy always fall into desolation (in the USSR - light industry and agriculture), from where funds are taken for the development of the main industries.
The complex mechanism of a centralized economy requires a huge number of managers, planning, calculating and auditing officials. In order to induce subordinates to carry out plans-orders, the boss must have real power over them, provided by the strength of the entire state. All this is very expensive. But the main difficulty of centralized production planning lies in determining how many units of each product a society needs. V modern economy the number of manufactured types of products is measured in hundreds of thousands. Even the most powerful supercomputer will not be able to calculate the required volume of their production - for this you need to know the tastes and needs of many millions of people. Therefore, in real life, the calculation of the plan under such an economic system is as follows: all industrial and agricultural enterprises existing in the country report upward how much they could produce in the next year (for this, a little more is added to last year's production volume, suppose 2%). These figures are summed up and, with minor amendments, a plan is drawn up, which is then returned to the same enterprises. It is clear that the accuracy and validity of such a plan leaves much to be desired.
The production technology is also determined by the state, because in a centralized system it owns all buildings, structures, machines, resources, etc. the most effective.
All products produced in a centralized economic system go into the ownership of the state and are redistributed by it in accordance with the plan. The approximate nature of the plans can create considerable difficulties in distribution, both for enterprises and for ordinary consumers. In a centralized economy, even in the most prosperous period, there is always a shortage of some goods and a surplus of others. In an effort to improve the situation, the state changes its plans, but since it is not clear exactly how much the adjustments need to be made, where there was a deficit, there is a surplus, and vice versa.
Another major disadvantage of a centralized economy is the lack of sufficient incentives to produce. The fact is that the income of a producer in this economic system does not directly depend on how much and what kind of products he produced. The amount of income received is primarily determined by the place that a person occupies in the management pyramid: an ordinary employee gets the least, and most of all - the chief boss. Under these conditions, people can only be encouraged to work with greater productivity in non-economic ways: either by threatening punishment, or by inspiring enthusiasm, for example, based on belief in a bright future. Both of these methods were used in the Soviet Union.
The strengths of a centralized economy are reflected in its small size, when the center has the ability to directly control everything that happens in the economy. As a matter of fact, any firm is a small, centralized economic system. If the farm becomes too large, obtaining accurate information and control becomes more difficult, the need for a large bureaucratic apparatus of management arises, and the disadvantages of central planning begin to outweigh the advantages.
Market system
In a market economic system, people operate who are free from the power of traditions and are not subordinate a single center... Each of them decides for himself what to make, how and in what quantity, proceeding from one single goal - personal interest, increasing their own wealth and well-being.
In the conditions of division of labor and personal freedom, producers are linked to each other through the exchange of products - goods... Only by exchanging his goods, the manufacturer can get everything he needs to meet his needs. The interdependence of people in a market economy is very high. But unlike a custom-made artisan, a manufacturer in a market economy often produces his goods for a buyer unknown to him in advance. Unlike a centralized one, a market economy does not guarantee everyone that he will always be able to exchange his product for others. Back side freedom of choice is risk and full personal responsibility.
So, the exchange of goods plays a key role in a market economy. But it is not so easy to exchange goods for goods. This requires the consent of both commodity owners. It is likely that, say, a shoemaker is willing to exchange boots for pies, but the pastry would like to receive something else for his goods. In order to satisfy everyone, a long chain of exchanges would have to be started.
The only way out is to agree that any one product will be accepted by all sellers without exception. Such a product is called money... The market economy cannot work successfully without money.
Sale goods is exchanging it for money, and purchase- exchange of money for goods.
The economic system that unites free people, connected by a relationship of purchase and sale, is called market... The word "market" in all languages originally meant the place where they trade. Such markets began to arise from time immemorial, because even in those days when subsistence farming prevailed, some goods: salt, iron, spices, jewelry, were brought from other places and sold in the markets by merchants. However, in those days, the life of most residents was not constantly connected with the market.
V late XVIII- the middle of the XIX century. the industrial revolution took place in Western European countries, as a result of which most goods were no longer produced by hand, but with the help of machines. The number of goods increased dramatically and they began to be sold in the markets. Moreover, buying and selling encompassed not only products but also factors of production. Machinery and equipment became the subject of trade, as well as land, which used to belong to feudal lords and could only be inherited. The labor of workers who could freely dispose of it, in contrast to serfs, guild craftsmen and their apprentices, also began to be bought and sold. This is how capital markets, land and labor... The social system under which the market system dominates in the economy is called "capitalism".
In a market economy, the factors of production and its result - the product - do not belong to the community, as in a traditional economy, and not to the state, as in a centralized one, but to private individuals. Therefore, the problem of incentives to production in a market economy is not worth it. Each manufacturer chooses the most profitable product for himself and produces it so much as to get as much money as possible in the end. The production technology is also selected as the most efficient, in which the ratio of the result to the cost is the greatest. Therefore, the market economy favors technological progress, as a result of which new, more productive technologies are created.
Perhaps the most complex issue- on the distribution of products. How does the market economic system manage to put things in order in this company of selfish people who do whatever they please? After all, here the provision of the population with the necessary benefits, as well as the fairness of distribution and exchange, are not guaranteed either by custom or by a plan backed by the power of the state.
This question was answered by the famous English economist and philosopher Adam Smith in his book "A Study on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" (1776), which for brevity begins simply "The Wealth of Nations."
Historical experience has shown the superiority of the market economy over the other two economic systems. It solves the problem of incentives for economic activity in the simplest way, has the ability to relatively quickly adapt to unexpected changes, and favors technical progress. Of course, a market economy is not ideal. She may be characterized by strong inequality incomes, since the state does not interfere in their distribution (in a traditional and centralized economy, the gap in incomes between the “bosses” and ordinary workers is very large, but the workers themselves are in approximately the same position), periodic economic recessions, unemployment and other problems. But we can call the market economy the least bad economic system in existence.
In the chapters that follow, we will take a closer look at how these problems are addressed and how the market economy system works.
Mixed economy
So far we have been talking about economic systems in their purest form. However, as a rule, the real economy of any country is not purely market, purely centralized or purely traditional. Elements of different economic systems are combined in a special way in each country. Elements of all three types of economic systems can be found in the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America. In developed countries, we are faced with a combination of market and centralized economies, dominated by the former. This combination is called a mixed economy. A mixed economy is designed to harness the strengths and overcome the disadvantages of market and centralized economies. For example, even in one of the most market-oriented economies in the world - the American one - the state actively intervenes in the process of product distribution and centrally issues food coupons to the poor. At the same time, in such a centralized economy as the Soviet one, even during the years of Stalinism, elements of a market economy were allowed, for example, food and clothing markets, where citizens could try to buy what they did not receive from the state. However, the difference between an economy dominated by central planning and an economy dominated by the market is enormous. It was felt by the population of our country, where a long and painful transition from a planned to a market economy is taking place.
Summary
The economic system is responsible for bringing the boundless needs and limited possibilities of members of society into conformity. Each economic system solves three major questions: WHAT, HOW and FOR WHOM to produce.
There are the following main types of economic systems: traditional, centralized (command) and market. In the traditional economy, the problems of WHAT, HOW and FOR WHOM to produce are solved on the basis of customs and traditions, in a centralized one - with the help of a plan established by the state, and in a market -based goals and interests of free producers who produce the most beneficial products for themselves.
In the real economy of each specific country, the main types of economic systems are combined, forming a mixed economy with a predominance of one system or another.
From the history economic thought
Adam Smith (1723-1790)
Adam Smith was born in the Scottish town of Kirkcaldy, studied at the universities of Glasgow and Oxford. Smith then moved to Edinburgh, where he lectured on English literature and rhetoric. The success of these lectures created a name for him in scientific circles, so at the age of 28 he was invited to the University of Glasgow as a professor, and then headed the Department of Moral Philosophy there (today we would drink it by the Department of Social Sciences). Smith's first book, The Theory of Moral Feelings (1759), is devoted to the problems of ethics - the science of morality, of the rules of human behavior. Already in this book, Smith tried to solve the problem of reconciling the interests of different people. He noted that this agreement can be carried out through the feeling of sympathy inherent in a person. Smith understood by this the fact that, evaluating their actions, a person can take the point of view of another person.
It seemed that after the publication of the book, the life of its author would be limited to university science, especially since Smith had a very calm and withdrawn character. However, in 1764, everything changed: Smith left the pulpit and went to France as tutor and educator of the young English Duke of Buckley. In Europe, he traveled a lot and met with the most famous scientists of his time - Voltaire, Quesnay, Turgot and others. There he began to write his most famous work - "The Wealth of Nations". The rest of Smith's life proceeded without noticeable events: he held the honorary position of the customs commissioner of Scotland, was engaged in research and journalism with great energy.
In The Wealth of Nations, Smith discovered another way of reconciling personal interests, based not on sympathy, but on a market economy, subject to free competition (competition) between market participants.
The main conclusion of Smith's book is that a market economy based on free competition can exist on its own. State intervention hurts her rather than helps her. Smith argued that in market system each person, pursuing personal gain, chooses the occupation that pays the best, produces the goods that have the highest price. Thanks to this, each person individually (and therefore the whole society as a whole) achieves the best result for himself, and the resources of society are distributed most efficiently. In addition, since many people begin to produce the most profitable products at once, competition arises between them and the price of the goods ultimately decreases, which is also beneficial to society. As Smith put it, the “invisible hand” pushes the selfish toward the public good.
But for this it is necessary that each person can freely do the business that he considers the most profitable. No one should (as in a traditional or centralized economy) limit his choices, tell him what to do and what not to do.
Direct government intervention hurts rather than helps the market economy — Smith’s conclusion made the greatest impression on his contemporaries. The fact is that at that time the so-called "mercantilists" dominated in economic thought - supporters of active state regulation of all aspects of economic life, and especially foreign trade.
An independent economic science begins with "The Wealth of Nations" by Smith - previously, economic knowledge was related to the subject of moral philosophy.