Basic cost accounting methods at enterprises of the Russian Federation. Accounting for production operations
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- CONTENT
- INTRODUCTION
- 2.4 Business transactions
- 2.5 General ledger
- 2.6 Turnover list
- CONCLUSION
- BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
Each company, before starting production activities, decides what costs it will face. For the production of any type of product, three elements are required: means of labor, objects of labor and labor power.
Formation of costs of production and circulation, their accounting are important for entrepreneurial activity organizations. This is important not only in relation to the current tax legislation, but also in accordance with the place of accounting in the organization's management system.
Production costs are one of the most important indicators characterizing the activities of an enterprise. Their value affects the final results of the enterprise and its financial condition. A certain level of costs in the enterprise is formed under the influence of the processes taking place in its production, economic and financial spheres... So, the more efficient the use of material, technical, labor and financial resources and more rational methods of management, the more opportunities appear to reduce the cost of manufacturing products in economic mechanism enterprises.
The main goal of any industrial commercial enterprise is to maximize profit, this is the difference between the funds received for the shipped products and the costs of their production and sale. Thus, the costs of the enterprise directly affect the formation of the amount of profit. The lower the cost of manufactured products, the more competitive the enterprise is, the more affordable the products are for the consumer and the more tangible the economic effect of selling them.
Nowadays, in commercial enterprises, special attention is paid to reducing and optimizing production and sales costs. This requires systematic control of production costs. To control costs, information is needed on costs by places of their use, by types of products, by the enterprise as a whole, and for this, cost accounting is used, which can be carried out in various methods, both traditional and modern. The choice of the method is made by the enterprise itself, depending on the characteristics of the production process, its complexity, the presence of work in progress, the duration of the production cycle, the range of products produced.
To understand which method is the most rational, easy to use, you need to analyze all existing cost accounting methods, identify their strengths and weaknesses, adaptability to use in various industries.
The relevance of the topic is that in modern conditions economic adoption process management decisions tactical and strategic nature is based on information on costs and financial results activities of the enterprise.
The object of the study is the financial statements and their components.
The purpose term paper is the study financial statements, its volume, use accounting statements for analysis financial condition enterprises, as well as its improvement in the context of the transition to international standards.
To achieve the goal, the following tasks are set:
Consider the purpose, goals, objectives, requirements for financial statements;
Describe the procedure for drawing up, submitting, approving reports;
Disclose the information content of the financial statements.
The course work consists of an introduction, two sections that reveal the topic of the work, a conclusion and a list of used literature for writing the work.
- 1. METHODS FOR ACCOUNTING PRODUCTION COSTS
- 1.1 Concept and classification of production costs
cost production method of accounting
Cost is the value used in economic activity organizations for reporting period material, labor, financial and other resources. Costs can be charged to either assets or expenses of the organization.
· Types of production (main, auxiliary, non-industrial);
· In the structural divisions of the enterprise (cost centers, centers of responsibility);
· Types, product groups (cost carriers);
· Economic elements of costs;
· Cost items.
For accounting and planning the costs of production and sales of products, two complementary classifications are used: item-by-item and calculation (by item of expenditure).
Costs are called economic elements if they are homogeneous in their economic content, regardless of the place of implementation and purpose.
The element-by-element classification of costs is necessary to determine the tasks for reducing the cost of production. By elements, costs are grouped that are homogeneous in economic content (material, labor, costs that have the nature of complex cash receipts).
In accordance with the Basic Provisions on the composition of costs included in the cost of products (works, services), the grouping of costs contains the following elements:
Material costs (minus the cost of returnable waste),
· Costs for wages,
Deductions for social needs,
Depreciation of fixed assets
· Other costs.
Material costs - reflect the cost of raw materials, materials, components and semi-finished products, fuel and energy of all types, transport services of third-party organizations, works and services of a production nature, wear and tear of low-value and wearing out items.
Labor costs - includes labor costs for the main production personnel of the enterprise.
Social contributions - reflect compulsory deductions(according to statutory norms) social insurance authorities, pension fund from all types of remuneration of workers employed in the production of products.
Depreciation of fixed assets - contains all depreciation deductions to fully restore the main production assets based on their book value and established norms, including accelerated depreciation their active part.
Other costs - include all other costs that were not included in the previously listed cost elements: taxes, fees, deductions to budget funds, attributed to the cost of production; payments on compulsory insurance property of the enterprise; interest payments for short-term bank loans within the legislatively established rates, as well as payment for communication services, training, advertising, fire fighting and other costs within the legislatively established norms.
The costing classification reflects the cost center and is used to record and calculate the costs of production and sale of all products (works, services). The grouping of costs by items is carried out depending on their functional role in the production process: the costs caused by the production consumption of resources, and the costs associated with the organization, maintenance, management and sales.
The main provisions for planning, accounting and costing for industrial enterprises a standard grouping of costs has been established for the following main costing items:
1) raw materials and supplies;
2) recyclable waste(deducted);
3) purchased semi-finished products and services of a production nature of third-party enterprises and organizations;
4) fuel and energy for technological purposes;
5) wages of production workers (basic and additional);
6) deductions for social needs;
7) expenses for preparation and development of production;
8) general production costs;
10) losses from marriage;
11) other production costs;
12) business expenses.
The sum of the first eleven items forms the production cost of production, and the sum of the twelve items - the total cost of production.
Depending on the time of occurrence and attribution to the cost price, the costs are divided into expenses of the current period, expenses of future periods and future expenses.
Under expenses of the current period understand the costs associated with the production and sale of products in a given period. TO deferred expenses includes costs that have arisen in this period, but are subject to repayment in the following reporting periods (development of new enterprises, industries, etc.). TO upcoming expenses includes reserved expenses (vacation expenses, etc.).
By economic role in the production process, costs are divided into main and overhead. The main costs are directly related to the production process, and overheads are related to the organization, management, technological preparation of production and its maintenance.
By composition(homogeneity) costs are divided into single-element (simple) and complex (complex). Single-element (simple) costs are homogeneous in their economic content, complex (complex) ones consist of several economic elements.
By the method of inclusion in the cost of production costs are divided into direct and indirect. Direct costs are associated with the production of certain types of products and are directly attributed to these products on a direct basis. Indirect costs are associated with the production of several types of products and are distributed among them proportionally.
In relation to the volume of production costs are subdivided into conditionally fixed and conditionally variable. Conditionally fixed costs are costs, the absolute value of which changes insignificantly when the volume of production changes (general production, general business, commercial costs). The nominally variable costs change in direct proportion to the increase in production.
By the frequency of occurrence costs are subdivided into current and non-recurring costs. Operating costs are costs that have a frequent frequency of occurrence (consumption of raw materials and materials, etc.). One-time costs are the costs of preparing and mastering the release of new types of products, launching a new production, etc.
By effectiveness or degree of feasibility costs are divided into productive and non-productive. Production costs are the costs of producing products of a specified quality with rational technology and organization of production. Overhead costs are the result of deficiencies in technology and organization of production.
By participation in the production process costs are subdivided into production and commercial.
From the point of view of an individual enterprise, costs are divided into individual and social. Individual costs represent the costs of a specific economic entity, social costs - the costs of producing a certain volume of some product from the point of view of the entire national economy.
Systematic determination and analysis of the structure of costs in the enterprise are very important, primarily for cost management in order to minimize them.
The cost structure allows us to draw a conclusion about what type of production the enterprise belongs to (material, energy, fuel, capital, labor-intensive, etc.), and also to determine the main directions of reducing production costs.
The structure of the cost of production is understood as the ratio of costs by elements or items or their share in the total cost. It is in motion, and it is influenced by many factors: the specifics of the enterprise, the acceleration of scientific and technological progress, the geographical location of the enterprise, inflation and change interest rate bank loan and etc.
The structure of costs allows you to identify the main reserves of reduction and develop specific measures for their implementation at the enterprise. The structure of costs as a whole for industry and its branches changes every year.
- 1.2 Traditional methods of accounting for production costs
Regulatory method of accounting for production costs.
The normative method of accounting for production costs and calculating the cost of production is used, as a rule, in manufacturing industries with mass and serial production of various and complex products.
Its essence is as follows: certain types production costs are taken into account at the current rates provided for by regulatory calculations; separately keep an operational record of deviations of actual costs from current norms, indicating the place of occurrence of deviations, the reasons and culprits of their formation; take into account the changes made to the current cost rates as a result of the implementation of organizational and technical measures, and determine the impact of these changes on the cost of production. The actual cost of production is determined by the algebraic addition of the sum of costs according to the current norms, the magnitude of deviations from the norms and the magnitude of the change in norms:
Z f = Z n + O + I,
Zf - actual costs;
Зн-standard costs;
O - the amount of deviation from the norms;
And - the magnitude of the change in norms.
In this case, the actual cost can be established in two ways: by direct and by direct calculation. If the object of accounting for production costs is certain types of products, then deviations from the norms, as well as their changes, can be directly attributed to these types of products. The actual cost of these types is determined by the method of direct calculation according to the above formula.
If the object of accounting for production costs is a group of homogeneous types of products, then the actual cost of each type of product is established by the distribution of deviations from the norms and changes in norms in proportion to the standard costs for the production of types of products.
The application of the normative method of accounting for production costs and calculating the cost of production requires the development of normative estimates based on the main costs in force at the beginning of the month, and quarterly estimates for the expenditure and maintenance of production and management. In organizations differing in the relative stability of technological processes, cost rates rarely change, so the planned cost differs little from the normative one. In these organizations, you can use planned cost estimates instead of standard cost estimates.
The normative method of accounting for production costs and calculating the cost of production is designed to perform two functions: to provide operational control over production costs by accounting for costs according to current standards and separately - deviations from the norms and their changes.
Process-by-process method.
The process-by-process method of calculating the cost of production is usually used in enterprises that are characterized by a mass production, one or more types of products, a short period of the technological process and in most cases the absence of work in progress.
The essence of the process-by-process method lies in the fact that direct and indirect production costs are accounted for according to items of calculation for the entire output. In this regard, the average cost per unit of production (work, service) is determined by dividing the sum of all production costs for the month (as a whole for the total and for each item) by the amount of finished products for the same period. Cost accounting objects are often the same as costing objects. To strengthen control over production costs and places of their occurrence in many enterprises, the production process is subdivided into stages. In this regard, changes are being made to the nomenclature of items, according to which production costs are taken into account. At the same time, the latter become, as a rule, direct and it becomes possible to reflect them in terms of economic elements.
Scope of application.
Depending on the production conditions, one of three options for the distribution of production costs is applied.
First option(distribution of production costs between output and work in progress) is used in industries with a long production cycle, where work in progress is formed by the end of each period. The most characteristic representatives of these industries are enterprises of the peat and logging industries. Accounting for production costs at these enterprises is carried out by processes, but without calculating the cost of production of each process. The actual unit cost is determined by direct calculation.
Second option(distribution of production costs between several types of products) is used at enterprises in industries in which work in progress is absent or is not taken into account due to insignificance, but several types of products are produced simultaneously, for example, at power plants, oil-extracting industry and building materials industry. At enterprises of this type, production costs are accounted for by processes (stages). In this case, the production costs related to a certain type of product are taken into account separately, while the total costs are distributed between individual types of products using one of the calculation methods listed above.
The third option(the summation of production costs by processes) is used in the coal and mining industries, coal preparation, a number of industries building materials(brick and slate). Here is the summation of production costs by processes and their distribution to the volume of output.
Alternating method.
Many industries are characterized by the consistent processing of industrial and agricultural raw materials to obtain a finished finished product based on chemical-physical, biological and thermal processes. A feature of such industries is the presence of sequential technological stages, which are called redistribution.
Redistribution- This is a set of technological operations, which ends with the production of an intermediate product (semi-finished product) or the receipt of a finished finished product.
The object of accounting for production costs in such industries is each independent redistribution. The list of redistributions is determined on the basis of the technological process, depending on which the system for the formation and accounting of production costs, the assessment of work in progress and the calculation of the cost of production are built.
All of these features predetermine the essence of the transverse method, which is as follows. Direct costs are reflected in the current accounting not by types of products, but by redistributions or stages of the production process, even if in one redistribution it is possible to obtain products different types... Consequently, the object of accounting for production costs is usually redistribution. The object of costing is the type or group of products of each redistribution.
With certain sectoral differences in the application of the transverse method, there are a number of common features: the production in which it is applied, as a rule, is very material-intensive. Therefore, accounting for material costs of production is organized in such a way as to ensure effective control over the use of materials in production. For this, the most commonly used:
· Balances of raw materials, calculations of the output from each redistribution of a product or semi-finished products, scrap and waste;
· Semi-finished products obtained in one redistribution serve as the source material in the next redistribution;
· Accounting of production costs is organized according to technological redistribution;
· Production costs are grouped and accounted for by aggregates;
· Balances of work in progress at the end of the month are identified on the basis of an inventory of the corresponding redistribution;
· The unit cost of each type of finished product is calculated, as a rule, in a combined or one of the proportional ways.
Custom method.
The essence of the order-by-order method is that all direct basic production costs are taken into account in the context of the established items of the calculation sheet for individual production orders issued for a predetermined number of products (products) of this type. The rest of the production costs are accounted for by places of origin, by purpose, by items and are included in the cost of individual orders in accordance with the established distribution base. Therefore, the costing object in this method is a separate production order, actual cost which is determined after its execution. Until the order is fulfilled, all related production costs are considered work in progress.
The enterprises should organize proper control over production costs and drawing up primary documents in accordance with detailed and operational rates of material consumption and Money for wages. This control is intended to prevent the execution of work not provided for by the technological process, as well as to ensure the correct assignment of production costs to the corresponding orders.
Scope of the custom-made method. The custom-made method is mainly used in individual production with mechanical processes for processing materials, in the manufacture of non-repeating or rarely repeated copies of products. complex species(turbines, ships, etc.), in industries in which prototypes of products are produced, as well as in auxiliary industries (repair work). It is used in enterprises with physical and chemical processes in the production of certain types of products in limited quantities. The scope of the custom-made method is also small-scale production with the release of a predetermined number of products.
- 1.3 Modern methods accounting for production costs
Standard cost.
In modern economic conditions, the process of making managerial decisions of a tactical and strategic nature is based on information about the costs and financial results of the enterprise. One of the most effective tools in managing the costs of an enterprise is the standard-cost accounting system, which is based on the principle of accounting and control of costs within the established norms and standards and deviations from them.
Since its inception, the Standard-cost accounting system has successfully developed and is now widely used by many leading firms in countries with developed market economies.
The Standard-cost system satisfies the needs of the entrepreneur and serves as a powerful tool for controlling production costs. Based on the established standards, it is possible to determine in advance the amount of expected costs for the arbitrariness and sale of products, calculate the unit cost of a product to determine prices, and also draw up a report on the expected income of the next year. With this system, information about the existing deviations is used by the management to make operational management decisions.
The standard-cost system is based on the preliminary (before the start of the production process) rationing of costs by cost item:
· Basic materials;
· Remuneration of the main production workers;
· Production overhead costs (wages of auxiliary workers, auxiliary materials, rent, depreciation of equipment, etc.);
· Commercial expenses (sales expenses, product sales).
Consumption rates of materials and production wages are usually installed per product. To control overhead costs, estimated rates are developed for a certain period, the outcome; from the planned volume of production. Overhead estimates are ongoing. However, when production fluctuates, variable standards and rolling estimates are created to control overhead costs.
Direct costing.
In the context of developing market relations effective management of the organization's commercial activities increasingly depends on the level of its information support. The current domestic accounting system still largely takes into account the directive economy and performs the functions of calculation taxable base... Until now, our enterprises use the cost-based accounting method, which provides for the accounting and calculation of the full actual cost of a unit of production (work, services). However, all world experience testifies to the effectiveness of using the marginal accounting method - the Direct Costing accounting system, which is based on calculating the reduced cost of production and determining margin income.
Modern direct costing has two options:
1) simple direct costing based on the use of data only on variable (operational) costs in accounting;
2) developed direct costing (verible costing), in which, along with variable costs, direct fixed costs for the production and sale of products are included in the prime cost.
Generally, the essence of the direct costing system is to subdivide costs into their fixed and variable components, depending on the change in the volume of production.
The following features are characteristic of the direct-cost accounting system and the generalized form:
· Constant focus of accounting primarily on determining the intermediate result of marginal income;
· Accounting of products only in the context of variable costs and determination of its production cost;
· Determination of marginal income as the basis for the process of operational management of prices and pricing;
· Determination of the relationship and interdependence between the volume of sales, cost and profit;
· Establishing a break-even point, at which the amount of proceeds from the sale of products is equal to its full cost.
The main advantages of the direct costing accounting system can be summarized as follows:
1) simplification and accuracy of calculating the cost of production, since the cost is planned and taken into account only in terms of production costs;
2) the absence of procedures for drawing up complex calculations for the conditional distribution of fixed costs between types of products. They are not included in the cost of production and are written off directly to reduce the financial result;
3) the ability to determine the threshold of profitability (break-even point, threshold sales volume), the safety margin of the enterprise and the lower limit of the price of a product or order;
4) the ability to conduct a comparative analysis of the profitability of various types of products;
5) the ability to determine the optimal program for the release and sale of products;
6) the ability to choose between own production of products or services and their purchase from outside.
JIT.
In modern conditions, the activities of domestic manufacturers should be focused on the production of high-quality and competitive products with the maximum reduction in production costs. Therefore, the use of advanced forms and methods of labor organization and production management, used in economically developed countries... In this regard, the method of production management according to the JIT system ("just-in-time", ie "just in time") is of particular interest to us.
The JIT system originated in Japan in the mid 70s of the XX century. in Toyota and is currently used with great success in many industrialized countries.
The essence of the JIT system is reduced to the refusal to manufacture products in large batches. Instead of this, a continuous-flow object production is created. At the same time, the supply of production workshops and sections is carried out in such small batches that in essence it turns into piece-by-piece. This system views the presence of inventories as an evil, the existence of which makes it difficult to solve many problems. Requiring significant maintenance costs, large inventories negatively affect the lack of financial resources, agility and competitiveness of the enterprise. From a practical point of view, the main goal of the JIT system is to eliminate any unnecessary costs and efficiently use production capacity enterprises.
The JIT system is more demand-driven than the traditional "throw-in-the-market" method.
The potential benefits of a JIT system are numerous:
First, its application leads to a decrease in inventory levels, which means less capital investment in inventories.
Secondly, in the conditions of using the JIT system, the reliability of order fulfillment increases significantly, since much less time is allotted for the purchase and storage of materials.
Thirdly, with the application of this system, an improvement in the quality of production is noted.
Other advantages of the JIT system include:
· Reduction of capital costs for the maintenance of warehouses for stocks of materials and finished products;
· Reducing the risk of obsolescence of stocks;
· Reduction of losses from rejects and reduction of costs for rework;
· Reduction of the volume of documentation;
· Reduction of costs for basic production materials by improving their quality.
FSA.
V market conditions economic management, improving the quality and increasing the competitiveness of products while reducing the cost of manufacturing them is one of the urgent tasks economic development... In solving this problem, an important role is assigned to functional cost analysis (FSA), which allows to cover all factors of the movement of products from the moment of its inception to the moment of consumption and utilization.
Functional cost analysis is a method of systematic study of the functions of an object (product, process, structure), aimed at minimizing costs in the areas of design, production and operation of an object while maintaining (increasing) its quality and utility.
The essence of this approach is * consideration of an object not in its specific form, but as a set of functions that it must perform. Each of them is analyzed from the standpoint of possible principles and methods of execution using a set of special techniques. The functional approach forces us to study not only the specific needs of customers, but also to analyze more deeply the quantitative and qualitative aspects of these needs, to rebuild production for them.
The purpose of the FSA is to develop useful functions of the object with an optimal balance between their significance for the consumer and the costs of their implementation.
The result of VAS, as an important tool for product quality management, should be a reduction in costs per unit of beneficial effect, which is achieved:
· Reducing costs while increasing the consumer properties of products;
· Improving the quality of products while maintaining the level of costs;
· Reducing costs while maintaining the level of quality;
· Cost reduction with a reasonable decrease in technical parameters to their functionally required level.
SCA.
Survival and effective operation of the enterprise in the conditions market economy are largely determined by the degree of development of management accounting. And if financial accounting is aimed at the compliance of the company's reporting with external requirements in relation to the company and its forms are regulated by the state, then management accounting is aimed at improving business management and methods of its implementation - the subject of choice for the company's top managers.
To ensure effective enterprise management, an integrated method of analyzing and optimizing costs for all items of its activities is required. This method of management accounting was called Cost Management (CM) in the economic literature, in which the emphasis was shifted from calculating costs to planning and using their accounting systems.
In the 90s of the XX century, based on general theory SM has developed a new method of management accounting - Strategic Cost Analysis (SCA - strategic cost analysis).
Strategic cost analysis is an essential part of CM, based on the value chain term, which has become the central focus of strategic cost management.
According to the SCA method, the activity of a company is interpreted as a use value chain (a sequence of operations to create the value of a product). Each link in the chain is considered both from the point of view of its necessity in the production process, and from the point of view of the resources it consumes. Then the cost driver is determined - the driving factor, i.e. a parameter that characterizes the cost of performing a specific operation. By controlling cost drivers and restructuring the value chain, it is expected to achieve a sustainable advantage over competitors.
Structural cost drivers are specific economic policy companies. SCA offers five criteria for selecting structural cost drivers:
· The scale of production, which determines the volume of investments in production, research and development, marketing;
· Coverage - the degree of vertical integration;
Experience - what is economic experience the implementation of the proposed operations;
· Technologies and their specificity;
· Complexity - the breadth of the range of products (services).
ABC.
The Activity Based Costing (or ABC) method has become widespread in European and American enterprises of various profiles. Literally, this method means labor cost accounting. It arose as a result of changes taking place in economic structure, in particular, the views on the method of accounting for costs and calculating the cost of production have changed.
The search for new methods of obtaining objective information about costs led to the emergence of the ABC method, according to which the enterprise is considered as a set of work operations that determine its specifics. In the process of work, resources (materials, information, equipment) are consumed, and some result arises. Accordingly, the initial stage of using ABC is to determine the list and sequence of work in the enterprise by decomposing complex work operations into the simplest components in parallel with the calculation of resource consumption. Within the ABC, three types of work are distinguished according to the way they participate in the production of products:
Unit Level (piece work),
Batch Level (batch work)
· Product Level (product work).
Representing an enterprise as a set of working operations opens up wide opportunities for improving its functioning, allows qualitative assessment activities in areas such as investment, personal accounting, personnel management, etc.
LCC.
A great effect in optimizing the costs of an organization can be achieved by applying the Life Cycle Costing (LCC) method - a concept of life cycle cost management The cost of the entire product life cycle - from design to discontinuation of production - was the most important indicator for state structures because the project was funded on the basis of the full cost of the contract or program, not the cost of a particular product. New manufacturing technologies have triggered the shift of LCC techniques to the private sector. The main reasons for this transition are: a sharp reduction in the life cycle of products; an increase in the cost of preparation and launch into production; almost complete definition financial indicators(costs and revenues) at the design stage.
Technological advances have shortened the life cycle of many products. For example, in computer technology, the production time of a product has become comparable to the time of its development. The high technical complexity of the product leads to the fact that up to 90% of production costs are determined precisely at the R&D stage. Thus, the most important LCC principle can be defined as "forecasting and managing costs for the production of a product at the design stage." This approach clearly illustrates the commonality of approaches in various sections of cost management.
Application of cost-management methods involves analyzing the impact of issuing / not issuing instructions on costs throughout the entire life cycle of the product.
Successful work in a competitive environment requires not only constant updating of the nomenclature and improving the quality of products, but also a thorough analysis of the enterprise's activities to reduce unnecessary or duplicate functions (work). Often, an enterprise, in pursuit of the goal of reducing costs, pursues a policy of total cost reduction. This decision is the worst, since as a result of such a policy, all jobs are subject to reduction, regardless of their usefulness. With a general reduction, the level of performance of the main work may decrease, which should lead to a deterioration in product quality and a decrease in the productivity of the enterprise.
2. ACCOUNTING OF THE FACTS OF THE MACHINE-BUILDING ENTERPRISE
2.1 Assignment for the practical part
1. Fill in the journal business transactions.
2. Open accounts and post business transactions.
3. Draw up a turnover sheet.
4. Fill in the form №1 "Balance sheet".
5. Fill in Form No. 2 "Profit and Loss Statement".
2.2 Extract from accounting policies organization
The task reflects in accounting the business transactions of the open joint stock company(JSC). The main activity of the JSC is the production and sale of industrial products.
The following accounting features are presented in the accounting policy of OJSC.
The assets in circulation include low-value items with a service life of less than one year.
To identify the actual cost of material assets, account 15 "Procurement and purchase of materials" is used. On account 10 "Materials" they are accounted for at discount prices. Average purchase prices are used as discount prices - wholesale (selling) prices of suppliers according to the contract. The difference between the cost of materials at book prices and the actual cost of purchase is reflected in account 16 "Deviations in the cost of materials". Inventory and household items are accounted for on account 10/9 at the actual cost of purchase (manufacture).
To summarize the costs of the main and auxiliary production, two calculation accounts are used - 20 "Main production" and 23 "Auxiliary production".
Accounting for production overhead costs of the main and auxiliary production is kept on account 25 "General production costs", which has two sub-accounts: 25-1 - for the main production and 25-2 - for auxiliary production. The costs accounted for on account 25-2 are included in the cost of auxiliary production services.
General overhead expenses (account 26) are written off to account 90 of sub-account 2 "Sales". To reflect the costs of selling finished products, account 44 "Costs of sale" is used.
The accounting policy also provides for the creation of a reserve for the payment of vacations to workers of the main and auxiliary industries (the payment for vacations of employees is reflected in the current order without reservation of amounts). A reserve for future payments for repairs is not created, actual expenses are charged to the current month's expenses, and prepaid expenses are written off to production costs on a straight-line basis.
The release of finished products is reflected on account 40 "Release of products (works, services)" at the standard production cost excluding general business expenses.
Accounting for the movement of finished products is carried out at the standard production cost.
Sales of products in accordance with supply agreements are recorded in the accounting "upon shipment", and for tax purposes - upon presentation of settlement documents for payment. Exchange rate differences are recorded on account 99 Profit and Loss.
To systematize settlements, transactions related to settlements for work and services are reflected in account 76.
Account 62/2 is opened to reflect advance payments from buyers.
On account 84 "Retained earnings" ( uncovered losses) sub-accounts are maintained 84/2 - "Retained earnings of last year", 84/3 - "Accumulation Fund".
For the rest of the accounts, for the sake of simplicity, accounting for sub-accounts is not kept.
In the materials of the assignment, some assumptions are made related to the simplification of the reflection of individual operations. So, the operations for the accrual and payment of amounts on the accounts are combined, which can be seen from the very content of such operations.
In a number of operations, ready-made amounts are given, although in practice they are calculated in the accounting department according to the current methods. All amounts in the task are conditional.
The task involves the compilation of a balance sheet based on the general ledger of accounts.
The digital material of the assignment is conditional.
2.3 Account balances
Account balances are shown in Table 1.
Account name |
Amount, rub. |
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Fixed assets |
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Depreciation of fixed assets |
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Intangible assets |
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Amortization of intangible assets |
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Installation equipment |
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Profitable investments in material values |
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Materials (edit) |
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Incl. inventory and household supplies |
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Variations in the cost of materials (debit balance) |
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VAT on purchased material assets |
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Primary production |
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Finished goods (at standard production cost) |
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Payment account |
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Foreign currency account |
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Financial investments |
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Settlements with suppliers and contractors |
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Settlements with buyers and customers |
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Short-term bank loans |
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Settlements with the budget |
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Calculations for social insurance and ensuring |
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Payments to personnel |
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Settlements with accountable persons (debit balance) |
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Settlements with founders (debit balance) |
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Calculations with by different debtors and creditors |
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Authorized capital |
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Reserve capital |
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Extra capital |
||||
Undestributed profits |
||||
retained earnings of the reporting year |
||||
retained earnings of previous years |
||||
Profit / loss from sales |
||||
Balance of other income and expenses (debit) |
||||
Reserves forthcoming expenses and payments |
||||
Future spending |
||||
Profit and loss (credit balance) |
2.4 Business transactions
The list of business transactions for the month is shown in Table 2.
Table 2 - Business transactions for December 2012
Operation No. |
Amount, rub. |
||||
Payment documents were accepted for the materials received: |
|||||
a) purchase price |
|||||
b) reimbursable transport costs |
|||||
The expenses for the procurement of materials were paid: |
|||||
a) from the current account |
|||||
b) from the reporting amounts |
|||||
Capitalized material assets at discount prices |
|||||
Deviations in book value of purchased materials (15028 + 3400 + 2244) |
|||||
The invoice of the contractor was accepted for the works on the reconstruction of the workshop accepted under the act |
|||||
Accepted from shareholders as payment for shares: |
|||||
a) equipment at a negotiated price |
|||||
b) intangible assets |
|||||
The equipment requiring installation was transferred to the installation organization for installation in the renovated workshop |
|||||
Accepted invoice of the installer for the installation of equipment |
|||||
Completed works on the reconstruction of the workshop, including the cost of the installed equipment, were accepted according to the act and included in the fixed assets |
|||||
Payment for previously shipped products has been received from buyers to the current account |
|||||
Paid from the settlement account of the contractor |
|||||
A garage built at the expense of our own capital investments in an economic way |
|||||
Depreciation accrued: |
|||||
a) fixed assets |
|||||
Equipment, buildings and structures of the main production |
|||||
Equipment, buildings and structures of auxiliary production |
|||||
Buildings and structures for general utility purposes |
|||||
b) intangible assets |
|||||
Decommissioned obsolete equipment: |
|||||
Initial cost |
|||||
Depreciation |
|||||
Residual value |
|||||
Accepted invoice of the contractor for dismantling the equipment |
|||||
Recorded materials from dismantled equipment |
|||||
Determine and write off the results from the disposal of equipment (340 + 2890-1700) |
|||||
The materials released from the warehouse for production have been written off at the book price: |
|||||
a) raw materials and materials: |
|||||
c) other materials |
|||||
For product packaging |
|||||
Total materials on the sheet |
|||||
Deviations in the cost of materials related to materials consumed have been written off: |
|||||
a) raw materials and materials: |
|||||
To the main production for the manufacture of products |
|||||
To auxiliary production for the production of services |
|||||
b) purchased semi-finished products and components for production |
|||||
c) other materials |
|||||
For maintenance of divisions of the main production |
|||||
For the maintenance of subsidiary production units |
|||||
For the maintenance of general business units |
|||||
For product packaging |
|||||
Wastes of the main production are capitalized at the price of possible use, received during the manufacture of products |
|||||
The salaries of the personnel of the enterprise for December were accrued: |
|||||
To workers for the manufacture of products in the main production |
|||||
To workers for the production of services in auxiliary industries |
Brief natural and economic characteristics. Formation and development of accounting. Objects and accounting items. Organization of primary, analytical and synthetic cost accounting. Cost accounting in work in progress, attributable costs and other costs. term paper, added 02/23/2009 Manufacturing and organizational structure enterprises, especially accounting for long-term investments, equity and debt capital, costs of production and sale of products. The procedure for calculating and accounting for taxes, preparation of financial statements. practice report, added 03/25/2016 General Provisions lease relations. Accounting business transactions. Transfer of property for rent (accounting with the lessor). Accounting for leased property (accounting from the lessee). Accounting rent... Accounting for the cost of improving leased facilities. term paper, added 12/17/2007 Types of production costs. Accounting and distribution of material, labor and financial resources expended in production. Methods for accounting for production costs and calculating the cost of production. Inventory of finished products. term paper added 05/29/2013 Statement of balances on analytical accounts. Determination of the amounts of indirect costs. Turnover sheet for inventory accounts. Settlement with accountable persons. Business transaction log. Calculation of the result from the implementation. test, added 04/08/2013 Accounting for production costs and calculating the cost of production. Inventory as a method of accounting. Classification of fixed assets. Drawing up correspondence of accounts and statements of synthetic accounts. Reflection of business transactions. term paper added 12/13/2014 Principles of organization and methods of accounting for production costs and calculating the cost of production. Features of cost accounting in trade organizations. Classification of production costs and the composition of costs included in the cost of production. test, added 11/06/2010 Economic essence and types of production costs. Cost of production and calculation principles. Process-by-process, by-pass and order-by-order methods of accounting for products (works, services). Problems of adaptation and development of progressive methods of cost accounting. thesis, added 01/14/2015 Accounting for production costs and product sales costs. Legal regulation of cost accounting and costing. The composition of the costs included in the cost of production. Ways to improve cost accounting in LLC "Raduga". |
The solution to a wide range of management tasks in agricultural organizations is based on the determination of the cost of production (work, services). The efficiency of organizations' work largely depends on timely information about the cost, the formation of which is largely due to the methods used for accounting for costs and calculating the cost of production. Calculation is the process of calculating the cost of a unit of products of varying degrees of readiness. Costing should be understood as not only calculating the actual cost of a unit of manufactured products, but also other works on calculating the cost:
- - products, works, services of auxiliary industries consumed by the main production;
- - intermediate products (semi-finished products) of the main production units used at subsequent stages of production; - products of divisions of the enterprise to identify the results of their activities; - the entire commercial output of the enterprise;
- - release of a unit of a type of finished product and semi-finished products of its own production (work performed or services rendered, etc.), sold to the outside;
The method of accounting for production costs and calculating the cost of production is understood as a set of methods for organizing the documentation and reflection of production costs, which ensure the determination of the actual cost of production and the necessary information to control this process.
The procedure for the formation of the cost for the purposes of management accounting is determined by the enterprise independently. The calculation of the cost of manufactured products is carried out by various methods. Currently, Russia uses several cost accounting and costing methods. Cost accounting and costing methods:
* Transitional;
The method is used in mass production with sequential processing of raw materials and materials (oil refining, metallurgy, chemical, textile industry, etc.), which is carried out in several stages (phases, redistributions). It is used if the raw materials and materials go through several completed stages of processing, and after the end of each stage, not a product is obtained, but a semi-finished product. Semi-finished products can be used both in our own production and sold outside. The essence of the method: Direct production costs are formed (reflected in the accounting) not by types of products, but by redistribution. The cost of production of each redistribution is calculated separately (even if it comes on the release of several types of products). Indirect costs are allocated on a pro rata basis. The alternate method of accounting for costs and calculating the cost of production can be:
- - non-semi-finished - when transferring a part between redistributions, only the quantity is transferred, without the cost price.
- - semi-finished - the cost is calculated for each stage of the product's production.
- * Custom-made;
This method is used in individual and small-scale production of complex products (shipbuilding, mechanical engineering). This method of calculation is used when products are manufactured in separate batches or batches or when they are manufactured in accordance with technical conditions customers. With this method, the accounting object is a separate production order. The essence of the method: direct basic production costs are taken into account in the context of costing items for production orders. The rest of the costs are accounted for by centers of origin and are subsequently included in the cost of orders by distribution. Until the order is fulfilled, all production costs that relate to it are considered work in progress. At the end of the work, the cost of a unit of production (order) is determined individually.
* Process-based (simple);
The method is used to establish the average cost of a batch of identical cost units over a specified period of time. This method is used in cases where it is practically impossible to establish the costs associated with the production of individual cost units, due to the continuous nature of the production process. An example of a unit of production that fits the definition of process costing is a tonne of oil in a refinery. It is impossible to establish the exact cost of certain tonnes that have gone through the recycling cycle. In these cases, when the production costing method is used, all of the items produced are designated for inventory creation. All sales orders are satisfied later with this stock of similar goods. Since the goods sold are the same, there is no need to establish the cost of any particular unit of production, and since the production process is continuous, it is usually impossible to establish a certain amount of material or production time allotted for each individual item. The only possibility is to sum up all the costs of the enterprise for a certain period of time and dividing these costs by the total number of products produced during this period to obtain an average production cost per unit of output. The essence of the method is as follows: direct and indirect costs are accounted for according to cost items for the entire output of finished goods. The advantages of this system include the fact that it requires fewer business transactions. However, the accuracy of the resulting cost of a single product is low.
* Normative.
This method is used in manufacturing industries with mass and serial production of various and complex products (mechanical engineering, metalworking, clothing, footwear, furniture production, and others).
The norm is a scientifically grounded indicator that expresses the measure of labor costs, time, material and financial resources required for the production of a particular product.
Standard - a norm characterizing the estimated need in kind or in value form; expressed in absolute or relative terms.
Inventory Ratio is the optimal size of inventory to ensure uninterrupted sale of goods at a minimum cost.
Normative calculation - the amount of costs that the company will spend per unit of output, taking into account the norms and standards in the line-by-line section. The essence of the method is as follows:
- * Certain types of production costs are taken into account at the current rates provided for by standard calculations;
- * Separately keep an operational record of deviations of actual costs from current standards, indicating the place of occurrence of deviations, the reasons and culprits of their formation; take into account the changes made to the current cost rates as a result of the implementation of organizational and technical measures, and determine the impact of these changes on the cost of production. Deviations are determined by the documenting method or by means of an inventory. Types of deviations:
- * deviation of the costs of basic materials;
- * deviation of direct labor costs;
- * deviation of general production costs.
Each of the deviations can be caused by only two reasons: a change in the planned price of a resource and a change in the planned volume of resource consumption.
Direct costing
The method is used in enterprises where there is no high level of fixed costs and where the result of the work can be easily determined and quantified. Widespread in all economically developed countries. Key concepts of the method:
Marginal income is the difference between revenue and variable costs. Includes operating profit and fixed costs.
Margin Costing - Allocates only variable direct costs to a cost object. The actual introduction of the Direct Costing system in the USA dates back to 1953. Modern system direct costing offers two accounting options:
- * simple direct costing, in which only direct variable costs are taken into account in the cost price.
- * developed direct costing, in which the prime cost includes both direct variable and indirect variable general business expenses. Cost accounting is carried out in the context of variable costs, fixed costs are accounted for as a whole for the enterprise and are attributed to a decrease in operating profit. In the process of applying this method, the marginal income and net profit are determined:
Interrelation of indicators in the marginal approach:
- * Revenue from the sale of products (B)
- * Variable costs (PE)
- * Marginal income (MD = B - PeZ)
- * Fixed costs (PO)
- * Profit (P = M - PoZ)
The change in the value of the marginal income characterizes the influence of sales prices and variable costs on the unit cost. The amount of profit depends on the amount of fixed costs. The interrelation of indicators allows you to influence the amount of profit by adjusting prices and production. Direct costing allows you to determine the critical volume of production, at which the proceeds will cover all production costs without making a profit. The critical volume of production (number of products) can be determined by the formula:
O = PoZ / (C - PeZ), (1)
where O is the critical volume of output,
PoZ - fixed costs for the whole enterprise,
C is the selling price of a unit of production,
PEZ - variable costs per unit of output.
Just in time system
The method appeared in Japan in the mid 70s. The JIT system is currently used by the largest Japanese, American and European enterprises in various industries. The system is based on the principle: "nothing will be produced until the need arises." The use of this technique allows the company to get rid of unnecessary costs by reducing non-productive costs, which are, in particular, from the release of surplus products, equipment and personnel downtime, the maintenance of unnecessary storage facilities, losses associated with the presence of product defects. At the same time, demand accompanies products throughout the entire production volume. Stocks are delivered at the time they are used in the production process. Some of the indirect costs are transferred to the category of direct costs. The emphasis is on quality, availability and total cost of products, rather than on the level of purchase prices.
Functional and cost analysis
The FSA method has been actively used in industry since the 60s, primarily in the United States. FSA is now one of the most popular types of product and process analysis. It can be useful where most of the costs are not direct costs, but overhead costs (for example, service industries).
Essence The FSA method is an analysis of the costs of a product performing its functions. All objects are considered as a set of functions that they must perform.
Functions are analyzed for necessity and usefulness and are divided into:
- * basic (determine the purpose of the product),
- * auxiliary (contribute to the implementation of the main),
- * unnecessary (do not contribute to the performance of basic functions). The goal of the FSA is the development of useful functions with an optimal balance between their significance for consumers and the costs of their implementation. FSA is carried out for existing products and processes in order to reduce costs without loss of quality, as well as for products under development in order to reduce their cost. The FSA includes the following main stages:
- - Gathering information about the functions of the object under study (information about the purpose, technical and economic characteristics, cost, etc.).
- - Research of functions (degree of utility) development of proposals for improving the object of analysis (cost reduction by eliminating unnecessary functions).
The method of accounting for production costs means a set of techniques and methods used to calculate the cost of products (works, services). For accounting of production costs, it is possible to use various methods of accounting for production costs.
Accounting methods are subdivided depending on the accounting methodology and the object of calculation.
Depending on the accounting methodology, accounting for actual costs and the normative method are distinguished.
Accounting for actual costs provides that accounting reflects all costs actually incurred. Only actual cost estimates are made and based on them, the cost of production and the cost of sales are determined. The costs are reflected directly in the accounting registers on the basis of primary documents confirming the actual costs incurred. In this case, standard estimates are not compiled or are compiled for purposes not related to accounting... The write-off of the cost price from the cost accounting accounts to the "Finished goods" account is carried out directly at the actual cost price.
The normative method of accounting for costs and calculating the cost of production is based on accounting for costs at current rates. Separately, they keep records of deviations of actual costs from the norms, indicating the place of their occurrence, causes and culprits; fix the changes in the norms as a result of the implementation of organizational and technical measures and determine the impact of these changes on the cost of production. The actual cost of production is made up of the sum of costs according to current norms, deviations from norms and changes in norms. In accounting registers, each actual amount of expenditure is divided into two parts: an amount within the normal range and an amount representing a deviation from the norm. Costs within the norm and deviations from the norms are transferred separately from one accounting ledger to another. So at the standard cost from account 20 "Main production" to account 43 "Finished goods" the cost of production of finished goods is written off, and deviations of the actual cost from the standard are written off separately. To account for deviations on account 43, a separate subaccount can be opened.
An intermediate method is possible, in which only actual costs and write-offs based on actual calculations are reflected in the accounting registers, and standard costs and standard cost estimates are used in management accounting registers.
Depending on the object of the cost estimate, a distinction is made between cost estimates for individual products or types of products, the order-by-order method, the line-by-line method, and the process-by-process method.
When calculating the cost of individual products, cost estimates are compiled for each unit of finished goods produced in the organization. With a complex technological cycle, when production is divided into stages assigned to various structural divisions, calculations are made for the products of these structural units... For the final product, the production of intermediate stages is a semi-finished product (parts, assemblies, etc.). When calculating estimates for finished products, the results of intermediate calculations are added taking into account the inclusion of intermediate elements in the final product. Direct costs are determined directly for each product. Indirect costs are allocated between items. The distribution base is usually the sum of direct wages - wages accrued to the main production workers. Other ways of allocating indirect costs are also possible.
The custom-made method of accounting for costs and calculating the cost of production is as follows. The accounting and costing object is a separate production order. An order is understood as a product, small series of identical products or repair, installation, experimental and other work. In the manufacture of large products with a long production process, orders are issued not for the product as a whole, but for its units, units, which are complete structures.
To account for the costs for each order, a separate analytical account is opened with an indication of the order code. The cost of an order is determined by the sum of all production costs from the day the order is opened until the day it is executed. Accounting for direct costs for individual orders is carried out on the basis of primary documents for accounting for production, material consumption, etc., in which the corresponding order code must be indicated. Indirect costs are allocated between individual orders in a conventionally accepted way in a given production or industry.
The custom-made method is used in individual and small-scale production (construction, turbine, blooming, aircraft, etc.). In addition, it is widely used in auxiliary industries, especially in repair work.
With the order-based method, all costs are considered work in progress until the end of the work on the order. The reporting cost estimate is drawn up only after the order has been completed; the time of drawing up it does not coincide with the time of drawing up the periodic reporting.
The alternate method of accounting for costs and calculating the cost of production is used in industries in which there are technological redistributions (metallurgy, textile production, etc.)
Redistribution is understood as a set of technological operations for the production of an intermediate product (semi-finished product) or finished product (at the last redistribution).
This method is used in industries with the integrated use of raw materials, as well as in industries with mass and large-scale production, where the processed raw materials and materials pass through several stages of processing - redistribution.
With the integrated use of raw materials or semi-finished products, the manufactured products of various grades and brands are converted to a conventional grade using a system of coefficients. When several products are made from the same raw material, the main product is isolated. The rest are treated as passing and rate them by set prices... The value of the appraised by-product is deducted from the total cost of production, and the remaining costs are charged to the cost of the main product.
Distinguish between non-semi-finished and semi-finished versions of the transverse method of accounting for production costs and calculating the cost of production.
In the first option, as already noted, they are limited to taking into account the costs for each redistribution. In the accounting records, the movement of semi-finished products is not reflected. Their movement from one redistribution to another is monitored by the accounting department according to the data of the operational accounting of the movement of semi-finished products in kind, which is carried out in the shops. In accordance with this procedure for accounting for costs, the cost of semi-finished products after each redistribution is not determined, but only the cost of the finished product is calculated.
In the second option, the movement of semi-finished products from workshop to workshop is drawn up accounting records and calculate the cost of semi-finished products after each redistribution, which makes it possible to identify the cost of semi-finished products at various stages of their processing and thereby provide more effective control over the cost of production.
With the semi-finished accounting method, account 21 "Semi-finished products in production" is used.
The process-by-process (simple, one-stage) method of accounting for costs and calculating the cost of production is used in organizations with the following characteristics of the production process:
Mass production of one or more types of products;
Brief period of the technological process;
There is no work in progress or it is insignificant.
Such organizations should include the organizations of the extractive industries (coal mining, oil production, etc.), the building materials industry, power and heating plants, etc. The process-by-process method is widely used in the energy facilities of auxiliary industries.
In the process-by-process method, costs are accounted for according to established costing items throughout the entire production process or, in addition, for individual stages of the production process. At the end of the reporting period, the total costs of the production process are divided by the number of units of output and the cost of one calculation unit is calculated.
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Definition 1
Calculations called a set of methods of accounting for costs and calculating the cost of goods manufactured.
The calculation procedure consists of three stages:
- Calculation of the cost of the total volume of manufactured products;
- calculating the cost of a certain group of products;
- calculating the cost of a unit of production.
Today in Russia the following cost accounting methods are used:
- transverse;
- custom-made;
- process-by-process;
- normative;
- standard costing;
Let's consider each type in more detail.
Percentage method of cost accounting
It is used in the production of mass products with stage-by-stage (conversion) and sequential processing of materials.
Redistribution, in this case, is a sequence of interrelated technological operations, as a result of which materials are converted into a semi-finished product or a finished product.
Remark 1
Semifinished is an intermediate link in the chain from materials to finished products.
The essence of the method lies in the fact that direct production costs are reflected in the accounting not by the types of products produced, but by redistribution. The cost of each redistribution of products is calculated separately. Indirect costs in this case are distributed in proportion to the designated bases. The number of redistributions is primarily due to the specifics of the technological process.
Products obtained in redistribution, except for the latter, are called semi-finished products of their own production. There are two options for calculating the cost:
- semi-finished,
- non-semi-finished product.
Semi-finished product costing makes it possible to take into account the costs for each separate redistribution and track the movement of semi-finished products from one workshop to another. Semi-finished products are included in the cost of production separately. The cost of production consists of the costs of redistribution and the cost of the received semi-finished products.
The non-semi-finished accounting method reflects only the costs for each redistribution.
The remainder of the work in progress at the end of the period is determined by means of a redistribution inventory.
The unit cost of a certain type of product can be calculated in a combined or proportional way.
Custom cost accounting method
This accounting method is used in individual and small-scale production of technologically complex products.
An order is a documented order for the execution of an order in production.
The order accounting algorithm is quite simple:
- orders are opened by filling in special forms;
- orders accepted for execution are registered with the assignment of a number;
- all order documentation is completed with the order number.
A copy of the order opening notification form is sent to the company's accounting department to draw up a map for analytical accounting of production costs for a specific order.
Direct production costs in this accounting are reflected in costing items for production orders. Other costs are accounted for by their place of origin and are then included in the cost of orders through distribution. Until the order is fully completed, production costs related to it are considered work in progress.
After the completion of the work, the order is closed and the cost of the order is formed.
Method of accounting
A process-by-process method is applied in industries with small nomenclature products and where work in progress is absent or insignificant.
Direct and indirect costs are taken into account in the context of cost items for general issue products. The average cost per unit of production is calculated by dividing the total cost for the period by the number of finished goods produced in this period.
The costs of auxiliary production, as well as management costs, are added up to complex cost accounting items. In the absence of work in progress at the end of the period total amount production costs will be the cost, otherwise the costs are allocated to finished products and work in progress.
Regulatory method of cost accounting
Used primarily in manufacturing industries.
Definition 2
The norm the minimum costs required for the production of products of the indicated quality are considered. Accordingly, the norm is the norm that characterizes the need, calculated in kind or in value form, expressed in absolute or relative terms.
The standard calculation reflects the amount of costs that will be spent per unit of output, taking into account the norms and standards for items.
With this method of accounting, certain types of production costs are accounted for at the rates specified in the standard cost estimates. Separately, deviations of the actual costs incurred from the current norms are taken into account, indicating the places of occurrence of these deviations, the reasons and those responsible for their formation. It also takes into account the changes that are made to the current cost rates as a result of the implementation of various measures, and determines the impact of these changes on the cost of production.
The actual cost can be calculated in one of the following ways:
- if the accounting object is separate types of products, then the formula is used: Costs fact. = Cost of norms. + The magnitude of deviations from the norms + The magnitude of the changes in norms;
- if the accounting object is a group of the same type of product, then the actual cost is determined by distributing deviations and changes in norms in proportion to the norms of costs for the production of the type of product.
Deviations are:
- deviation of the costs of basic materials;
- deviation of direct labor costs;
- deviation of general production costs.
The deviation can be due to two reasons:
- changing the planned price of a resource;
- change in the planned amount of resource consumption.
Standard costing method
This method is widespread in Western countries, and now it is successfully applied in Russia. It is mainly used in industries where prices for the resources used are relatively stable, and products do not change for a long time. The method is similar to the calculation of the standard cost.
This system is based on the following principles:
- preliminary rationing of costs by elements, as well as by cost items;
- preparation of normative calculations for the product and its individual parts;
- separate accounting of costs and standard deviations;
- analysis of deviations;
- making adjustments to the calculations when the norms change.
Cost rates are calculated preliminarily by item of expenditure:
- basic materials;
- wages of production workers;
- general production costs;
- business expenses.
Direct costing method
Used in companies with low level fixed costs, with easily identifiable results and quantifiable. Russian accounting standards full use of this accounting system is not permitted for external reporting and tax purposes. It is used in internal accounting to analyze and substantiate management decisions related to production break-even and pricing.
This method is based on the calculation of the reduced cost of production, the definition of marginal income.
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