The message on the topic of economics is short. The concept of "economy
INTRODUCTION
The test introduces the basic concepts of economics, the subject and method of studying economics.
Every person literally at every step is faced with various economic problems: how to satisfy your needs for food, clothing, education, recreation, etc., what economic activity to engage in, buy or not buy this or that product, is there enough income to purchase the desired product, etc.
Economy- is a part Everyday life people, people take daily part in economic activity, live in economic environment, constantly use the terms used by economists (money, prices, wage, income, expenses, etc.). It is impossible to live and be outside the economy. Each of us is familiar with the word "economy", although different people put different meanings into it. And many today the question "what is the economy?" can be confusing. It should not be surprising that, living in the environment of the economy, we find it difficult to say what it is. This circumstance is explained by the fact that the economy is such a general, capacious, multi-valued concept that it is not possible to define it in one phrase.
It is believed that the term "economy" was invented in the VI century. BC e. Greek poet Gespod, combining two words: “oikos” (house, household) and “nomos” (I know, law), which literally means art, knowledge, a set of rules of conduct household. This term was introduced into scientific circulation by representatives of ancient Greek economic thought Xenophon (c. 430-355 or 354 BC), who wrote a work called Economicos, and Aristotle (384-322 BC). ). The latter divided the science of wealth into "economy" (a set of use values) and "chrematistics" (the art of making money). But times are changing, and with them the meaning of old words is changing. Currently, the term "economy" has become widespread, but already in a slightly modified form. Today, it is usually understood as cost reduction, thrift when spending any resources. For society as a whole, saving means using economic resources, which leads to the maximum increase in the standard of living in a given society.
1The concept of economics. general characteristics
Economics as a science is the methodological foundation of a whole complex of sciences: sectoral (economics of trade, industry, transport, construction, etc.); functional (finance, credit, marketing, management, forecasting, etc.); intersectoral (economic geography, demography, statistics, etc.).
Economics as a science is one of social sciences, along with history, philosophy, law, etc. It is designed to reveal a certain part of the social phenomena of human life, for example, the science of law - one, the science of morality - another, etc., and only a set of theoretical social and historical sciences is able to explain to us all social life.
The word "economy" is of ancient Greek origin. It is a combination of two Greek words “economy” and “law”, so that in the literal, original sense, the economy should be interpreted as an economy conducted in accordance with laws, rules, and norms. At the same time, it must be remembered that the economy Ancient Greece It was mostly natural, domestic, so that the economy of that period was conceived not as the national economy of the country, but rather as home economics. In the literature on economics, in explanatory dictionaries, the term "economics" in its original interpretation is usually characterized as "the art of housekeeping".
Nowadays, the word "economy" has several meanings.1
Economy is a way of organizing people's activities aimed at creating the goods they need for consumption, a science that studies the behavior of people associated with the production, distribution and consumption of the goods they need.
Economy- this is the economy itself in the broad sense of the word, that is, the totality of all means, objects, things, substances of the material and spiritual world used by people in order to ensure living conditions, meet needs. In this sense, the economy should be perceived as a life support system created and used by man, reproducing people's lives, maintaining and improving living conditions.
1Raizberga, B.A. Economics course [Text]: textbook / Raizberga B.A. - M.: INFRA, 2001. -716s.
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economics- this is a science, a body of knowledge about the economy and related activities of people, about the use of various, most often limited, resources in order to meet the vital needs of people and society; about the relations that arise between people in the process of managing.
In order to terminologically divide the economy as an economy and as a science, the word "economics" in foreign literature will be divided into two: "economics" and "economics". The first means the economy, that is, the economy in its direct, natural manifestation, and the second - economic science, or rather, economic theory. This division contributes to greater clarity, certainty of understanding the economy. Along with the objective perception of the economy as an economic system and the idea of the economy as a body of knowledge about the economic system, some authors tend to see a third meaning in the word "economy". They characterize the economy as relations that arise between people in connection with the processes of production, distribution, exchange, consumption of goods and in the course of these processes. So, in general, the economy is the economy, the science of the economy and management, and the relationship between people in the process of managing. Well, the economy should include everything that is included by people in the orbit of actions aimed at obtaining and using the means of subsistence, the satisfaction of vital needs. The economy is a special world, with its own laws and problems, dramas and contradictions. It is complex and mysterious, this world of economics, and most importantly, it is open to everyone who wants to enter it as an active participant.
Modern economics is an endless detective: here randomness is "pretending" to be regularity, and regularity is "rejected" by randomness, this is the right to economic independence and the possibility of stunning commercial success.2
It is impossible to be outside the economy: like invisible rays, economic relations permeate the life of every person. And no matter how “abstract” the questions of the economic structure of society may seem, it is on them that the daily happiness of people depends: if this is a reasonable device, then people are free and rich, and their work is fruitful; if the economic system is mediocre, then they are dependent and poor, because forced labor is always fruitless.
2Mamedov O.Yu. Modern Economics [Text]: Lecture course. Multilevel textbook / Mamedov O.Yu. - Rostov n / D .: Phoenix, 2002. -544 p.
Economic science is not always able to predict the specific course of development of events, but it is able to discover their economic logic, and in the knowledge of this logic its practical value.
Economic knowledge is a means of salvation from social superstition, ruinous ignorance and the repetition of mistakes already made. The study of economics is also important because it forms the foundations of intelligence, something that, as it has now turned out, we can no longer do without. Economic theory operates with a variety of abstract concepts and models, so its knowledge also educates the culture of social abstract thinking.
Modern economics introduces high ethics economic relations because a reasonable and efficient economy can only be moral - one that values decency, professionalism and civic feelings - while a pseudo-economy cannot be either efficient or moral, because it is destined to give rise only to massive criminogenic aspirations. Economic theory focuses on genuine social values: the economic freedom of the individual, the right to profitable property, entrepreneurship - values that should enter into the everyday, everyday consciousness of our society. The most important thing is that the study of modern economic theory introduces one to civilized forms of economic activity. The fact is that as society develops, its wealth is increasingly made up of those economic forms that provide the maximum efficient production material values.
The modern economy is a community of independent people striving for economic independence who are ready to build their material well-being by their own efforts. With the desire to become such people, the transition to a civilized efficient market economy begins. It is precisely such an economic revolution in the public consciousness that we need most of all today. It is difficult to overcome our crisis not for economic, but for social and political reasons, since this is a crisis of an artificially organized "economy". That is why today it is most important to release the economic energy of the individual through the "privatization" of all social life.
Modern economics is one of the greatest intellectual and practically significant achievements of mankind. It is only thanks to economic science that people penetrated the secrets of the structure of social production and managed to create a mechanism for its optimal regulation: economic models are no less important than natural science ones, and without the recommendations of economic science, the effective functioning of modern production is simply unthinkable!
2
SUBJECT OF ECONOMY
Economics was born much later than economics itself. For many millennia, people have managed based on the experience passed down from generation to generation. Knowledge and ideas were empirical in nature, were not generalized and synthesized into a single scientific system. The forerunners of scientific economics were philosophy and sociology.
The subject of economics as an independent field of knowledge emerged about 300 years ago, when political Economy- a harbinger of future economic theory. Since then, especially over the past 150 years, ideas about the subject of economic science have been significantly transformed. To the question: "What is economics as a science?" - the creators and the brightest representatives of this branch of knowledge, economists give far from unambiguous answers. There are at least three markedly different approaches to formulating the subject matter of economics as a science.
Initially, the idea of economic science as studying the creation and use of material goods, obtaining material means of subsistence was born. The origins of such a vision are clearly visible from the father of economics, A. Smith, and are clearly reflected in the following definition, written by the outstanding English economist A. Marshall: “Economics studies the sphere of individual and social actions that is most closely connected with the creation and use of the material foundations of welfare” . After 100 years, the limitation of such a formulation from the standpoint of modern economic concepts lies in the fact that it excludes the so-called non-material production in the form of spiritual, intellectual activity, services from the sphere of economic activity. In addition, according to the definition given, economics is tied to the sphere of production, while the circulation, exchange, consumption of goods remain outside its field of vision.
IN last years the approach to the formulation of the subject of economic science, based on the use of the concept of "limited resources", has become widespread. According to this approach, the main task of economic science is to analyze the possible (alternative) ways of using the limited economic resources necessary to achieve certain goals, allowing you to choose the best alternative. In other words, economics studies the behavior of people and advises them how to act in conditions when it is necessary to compare ends and limited means to achieve them, taking into account the various possibilities for using these means.
The definition of economic science as a science that studies activities related to the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of goods and services looks more complete and complex. Thus, the American professor P. Samuelson, one of the first Nobel Prize winners in economics, the author of the world-famous textbook "Economics", briefly characterizes the subject of study of economic theory as "the establishment and implementation of consumption and production", "activities associated with the exchange and money transactions between them”, simultaneously citing other definitions and thus emphasizing that the formulation of the subject of economic science can neither be unique nor precise.
Professor P. Samuelson gives the following possible definitions of the subject of economic theory:
The science of activities related to the exchange and monetary transactions between people;
The science of how people use scarce or limited productive resources (land, labor, capital goods such as machinery, technical knowledge) to produce various goods (such as wheat, beef, coats, concerts, roads and yachts) and distribute them among members of society for consumption purposes;
The science of the daily business activities of people, their obtaining a livelihood and the use of these funds;
The science of how humanity copes with its tasks in the field of consumption and production;
The Science of Wealth.
Combining different approaches, one can come to a generalized definition of economic science, which, in the formulation of P. Samuelson and V. Nordhaus, looks like this: “Economic theory is the science of how people and society choose the way to use scarce resources, which can be multi-purpose, in order to produce a variety of goods and distribute them now or in the future for the consumption of various individuals and groups of society. The definition is somewhat cumbersome, but quite comprehensive.3
There is another original definition of economics. According to this definition, economics is a body of knowledge that allows answering three groups of interrelated questions:
1. What should be produced and how much?
2. How should goods be produced, who should produce them, from what resources, with the help of what technologies?
3. For whom are produced goods and services intended, how are they distributed among consumers?4
Sometimes these three groups of questions are stated extremely briefly: “What? How? For whom?" The answer to the first question characterizes the structure of production, to the second - to the technology, and to the third - to the sphere of consumption of the manufactured product.
However, this definition is not exhaustive either. After all, one must also know where to produce, how to distribute or how to sell the product produced, how to link production and consumption. So the number of questions that economics is called upon to answer can be increased to five, as individual economists do: what, how, why to produce, how to distribute and how to consume the product of production, use it.
It is fundamentally important to imagine and understand that economic science is not limited by predetermined limits, it is constantly expanding its field of action, penetrating into other areas, especially into the social and human sciences. Along with its traditional object (production, circulation, consumption of goods), economic knowledge deeply permeates the entire social sphere, is applicable to almost all types of relations - in the family, social groups, production teams, in society. Economics closely interacts with philosophy, sociology, psychology, law, history, geography, computer science, mathematics, and a number of natural sciences.
3Mamedov O.Yu. Modern Economics [Text]: Lecture course. Multilevel textbook / Mamedov O.Yu. - Rostov n / D .: Phoenix, 2002. -544 p.
3
METHODS OF STUDYING ECONOMY
If the subject of science is characterized by what it studies, then the method is how it is studied. One follows from the other. The reality of the results depends on the correctly adopted method.
Economics as a science uses a wide range of methods of scientific knowledge.
Method is a set of techniques, methods, principles by which ways to achieve the goal are determined.
One of these methods in the study of economic phenomena is the method of scientific abstraction (from Latin abstractio - distraction). The researcher is distracted from the secondary aspects of phenomena in order to reveal what is essential and constantly repeated in them. This is how general concepts: production in general, needs, distribution, exchange, etc.
The method of scientific abstraction, although the most important, is not the only method of scientific knowledge used in economic theory. Here, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, historical and logical methods, economic and mathematical modeling, economic experiment, etc. are actively used.
Analysis- this is a mental division of the phenomenon under study into its component parts and the study of each of these parts separately. By synthesis economic theory recreates a single holistic picture.
Induction and deduction are widely used. By means of induction (guidance), a transition is provided from the study of single facts to general provisions and conclusions. Deduction (inference) makes it possible to move from general conclusions to relatively specific ones. Analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction are applied by economic theory in unity. Their combination provides a systematic (integrated) approach to complex (multi-element) phenomena of economic life.
In any science, a certain amount of research methods is used. These methods are divided into: general (philosophical), arming all areas of knowledge, such as metaphysical and dialectical methods, general scientific - historical, logical, mathematical, etc., and specific - for each branch of science.
4Borisov, E.F. Economic theory [Text]: textbook / E.F. Borisov. - M.: Yurayt, 1999. - 384 p.
In economic theory, two, although opposite, but interconnected philosophical methods are used - metaphysics and dialectics.
Metaphysics considers all phenomena separately, in a state of rest and immutability. This is necessary in cases where some element of the system is analyzed separately or the internal structure of economic relations is clarified. We will do the same, for example, when classifying types of property, forms of management, functions of money, types of markets, forms of wages.
Economic theory reflects reality more fully when it adopts dialectics- the doctrine of the most general patterns of formation and development of all phenomena of nature, society and thinking. The German philosopher Georg Hegel (1770-1831) - the creator of the systematic theory of dialectics - assigned a central place in this theory to contradiction. He considered the latter as a unity of mutually exclusive and at the same time mutually presupposing opposites. Hegel estimated contradiction as a “motor”, as an internal impulse of any development. This, of course, fully applies to the economy.
CONCLUSION
At the end of this control work the following conclusions can be drawn.
Economics is closely related to other economic sciences: macro- and microeconomics, management and marketing theory, statistics, accounting and others. The subject of study of this science is the activity of the enterprise, the process of developing and making economic decisions.
The main objects of study are the production activities of the enterprise, the mechanisms for the formation and use of the main factors of production and economic resources of the enterprise.
The enterprise operates in a certain business environment that affects all aspects of its activities. When developing an enterprise development strategy, it is important to take into account its state, development prospects, dynamics, and various areas of influence.
The method of comparative analysis, statistical, graphical, probabilistic methods, forecasting and other methods of economic sciences are widely used in the economics of the enterprise. The development of competent economic decisions is impossible without knowledge of economic laws, the availability of specific economic knowledge, skills, and the ability to use them in practice.
LIST OF LITERATURE
:
Raizberg, B.A. Economics course [Text]: textbook / B.A. Reisberg. - M.: INFRA, 2001. - 716s.
Borisov, E.F. Economic theory [Text]: textbook / E.F. Borisov. - M.: Yurayt, 1999. - 384 p.
Zhuravleva, G.P. Economics [Text]: textbook / G.P. Zhuravleva. - M.: Lawyer, 2001. - 574 p.
Bulatova, A.S. Economics [Text]: textbook / A.S. Bulatova. – M.: Lawyer, 1999. – 557p.
Mamedov, O.Yu. Modern Economics [Text]: Lecture course. Multilevel textbook / O.Yu.Mamedov. - Rostov n / D .: Phoenix, 2002. - 544 p.
SECTION I. INTRODUCTION
1. Economic man and rational economic behavior.
2. Subjects and objects of economic relations.
3. Interpretation of the subject of economic theory various schools economists.
4. Similarities and differences in economic theory, economics, political economy.
5. What is the difference between normative and positive economics?
6. The subject of micro- and macroeconomics, their relationship.
7. Principles of economic organization and the subject of economic theory.
8. Methods of economic analysis.
9. Correlation of concepts: principles, patterns, laws in economic theory.
10. Scientific abstractions and economic categories.
11. Economic and mathematical modeling as a method of scientific knowledge.
12. Scientific hypotheses and their verification in an economic experiment.
13. Economic thinking: role and place in the structure of public consciousness.
14. Increasing value economic policy in the context of reforms.
15. Logical assumptions and errors in scientific economic analysis.
16. The structure of economic goals and their relationship.
17. Causal dependencies in the economy and their reflection in economic theory.
18. Changing the real economy and the development of economic theory: feature and relationship.
19. Economic theories of the ancient world (China, India, Greece, Egypt, Rome).
20. History of the development of economic theory. Scientific schools.
21. Development of domestic political economy.
22. Outstanding Russian economists.
23. Laureates of the Nobel Prize in Economics.
24. Non-traditional interpretations of the subject and method of economic theory.
25. Philosophical foundations of economic theory.
26. Contradictions and their role in socio-economic development.
27. Stages and phases of economic development.
28. Modern civilization and its information stage of development.
SECTION II. GENERAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE COMPANY
1. Rarity of goods and production.
2. Motives and incentives for human production activities.
3. Methods of combining material and personal factors of production.
4. Problems of production efficiency in a market economy.
5. Substitution of factors and the problem of production flexibility.
6. Sustainability of production and its impact on society.
7. Information and change in the nature of the production function in the context of scientific and technological revolution.
8. Technological choice and ecology.
9. Fight for limited resources.
10. Economic Law of Conserved Marginal Returns and Increasing Additional Costs.
11. The law of diminishing returns and how to overcome it.
12. Material production and non-productive sphere.
13. Role and importance state property in market system management.
14. Significance of the principles of private property and freedom of enterprise for a market economy.
15. Advantages and disadvantages of various options for the privatization process in Russia.
16. The problem of optimizing the structures of forms of ownership in the transition to a market economy.
17. Relationships of economic behavior and property relations.
SECTION III. BASES OF THE THEORY OF MARKET ECONOMY
1. Features of commodity-money relations in the conditions of the Asian mode of production.
2. Formation and development of the commodity economy in Russia.
3. The theory of marginal utility: emergence, essence, development.
4. Money and their role in the economy. Equilibrium in the money market.
5. Inflation: causes and methods of dealing with it.
6. Features of commodity-money relations in the Asian, ancient and feudal modes of production.
7. Money and barter in modern economy: reasons for using barter.
8. Electronic money and forms of their use.
9. Analysis of laws monetary circulation, formulated by K. Marx and I. Fischer.
10. The law of supply and demand in the system of the market mechanism. Finding a free niche.
11. Elasticity of supply and demand. Factors affecting the elasticity of supply and demand. Engel function.
12. The concept of equilibrium and its stability. Market equilibrium and price equilibrium as a condition for market self-regulation. The effect of a shift in the supply and demand curve.
13. Elasticity of demand and competition of producers.
14. The practical value of the elasticity of demand.
15. Elasticity and structure of taxation.
16. The problem of optimality and general economic equilibrium.
17. Coordinating role of prices.
18. The historical process of understanding the market as an economic phenomenon.
19. The main features of the free (classical) market.
20. Complete and sufficient economic freedom under market conditions.
21. Deformation of the market under the conditions of the command-administrative system.
22. Antitrust legislation of the USA: essence and consequences.
23. Non-price competition.
24. "Invisible hand" and perfect competition.
25. Scarce market: reasons for functioning and consequences.
26. The effectiveness of competitive equilibrium.
SECTION IV. INDIVIDUAL PRODUCTION. ECONOMIC BEHAVIOR OF MANUFACTURERS
1. Development of forms and internal structure of property relations.
2. The origin and world history of entrepreneurship: the problems of entrepreneurship in the writings of prominent economists.
3. Advantages and disadvantages of organizational and legal forms of entrepreneurship.
4. The essence of entrepreneurship and its role in the socio-economic development of society.
5. Entrepreneurial type of behavior, commercial and self-supporting methods of managing: problems of interconnection and development.
6. Goals, main functions and specific tasks of the entrepreneur.
7. Venture entrepreneurship: role in the modern economy and development problems.
8. State entrepreneurship in a market economy.
9. Lease relations: world experience and development prospects in Russia.
10. Privatization of enterprises in the context of Russia's transition to a market economy: concepts, main stages and forms, implementation practice and problems.
11. World experience and modern tendencies privatization processes abroad.
12. Shareholding: world experience, Russian realities and problems.
13. Topical issues of joint venture development in Russia.
14. Small business: character traits, advantages, foreign experience and problems of formation in Russia.
15. The origins of entrepreneurship and its development in Russia in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
16. Compliance with ethical standards as a condition for the development of civilized entrepreneurship and social progress.
17. Management: the evolution of scientific schools and modern concepts.
18. The main functions of management and their implementation in the management of the company.
19. Organizational structures firm management: world experience and current trends.
20. Business plan as the basis for the success of entrepreneurial activity.
21. National style of management.
22. Business strategy of the company and its evolution.
23. Price discrimination.
24. Price and non-price competition.
25. Japan's methods of penetration into the US car market.
26. Japanese and american models management.
27. Business plan of the company and features of planning in a market economy.
28. Market segmentation and consumer research.
30. How do the concepts of “capital-thing” and “capital-relationship” relate?
31. "Economic man", capitalist, entrepreneur - what is their role in organizing a business?
32. What is the importance of the principles of private property and freedom of enterprise for a market economy?
33. Can depreciation be considered as a source of funds for business development?
34. How does the ratio between sources of short-term and long-term financing change during the economic crisis?
3 5. What impact does the change in the composition of capital have on production efficiency?
36. The secret of primitive accumulation of Russian entrepreneurship.
3 7. Models of circulation in various economic theories.
3 8. accelerated depreciation means of the enterprise: causes, boundaries, experience of various countries.
39. Marginal costs and their role in shaping the company's strategy.
40. Production costs in the short and long run.
41. Productivity and wage growth.
42. The value of labor productivity growth for an individual firm and the national economy.
43. Total, average and marginal income - the criteria for the effective behavior of the company. profit maximization conditions.
44. Behavior of the firm in the conditions perfect competition and pure monopoly.
45. Ultimate productivity. Law of diminishing returns.
46. Sectoral and regional differentiation of production costs, their essence and dynamics.
47. Functional and personal distribution of income.
48. The price of labor in the labor market.
49. Monopoly profit: essence, sources, boundaries.
50. economic profit and its role in the effective functioning of the company.
51. Determining the equilibrium wage in a competitive market and in conditions of imperfect competition.
52. Financial intermediaries and their role in a market economy.
53. Problems of formation of market infrastructure in Russia.
54. Financial service: necessity, essence and peculiarities of Russian use.
55. Features of the functioning of exchanges in Russia.
56. Audit as an integral part of business.
57. Necessity and essence of information service.
58. The role of stock exchanges in ensuring the efficiency of the economy.
59. Trading house - "well-forgotten old."
60. Fair and auctions as forms of organization of wholesale trade.
61. Problems of formation of the information and technical environment of entrepreneurship in Russia.
62. Division of labor between industrial and commercial enterprises.
63. Social environment of business and entrepreneurship.
64. Innovative technologies in the infrastructure of entrepreneurial business.
65. Problems of infrastructural support for the activities of foreign firms and joint ventures in Russia.
66. Necessity and essence of business risk insurance.
67. The problem of the formation and withdrawal of land rent in modern agro-industrial production.
68. Revival of absolute rent in Russia.
69. The price of land: the essence, factors that determine the dynamics.
70. Efficiency of exchange between agriculture and industry.
71. Problems of the formation of farming in Russia.
72. State regulation agricultural production (including the experience of foreign countries).
SECTION V. PUBLIC PRODUCTION, PATTERNS OF THE FUNCTIONING OF THE NATIONAL ECONOMY. ECONOMIC POLICY OF THE STATE
1. Criteria of the socio-economic situation of the country: general characteristics their levels and tendencies.
2. Differences between international and domestic statistical methods for measuring the gross national product and national income.
3. National market and its equilibrium.
4. macroeconomic policy Russia. Problems of the current and imperative model.
5. Problems of regulating the proportions of social production in a market economy.
6. Structural shifts in Russian economy transitional period.
7. Models of equilibrium growth and predictive models of economic development.
8. Post-Keynesian growth models (E. Domara, R. Harrod).
9. Neoclassical growth model R. Solow.
10. Kaldor-Pasinetti Growth and Income Distribution Model.
11. Social equilibrium is a condition for the functioning of the national market system.
12. Types of economic growth: extensive and innovative.
13. Technical progress and economic balance.
14. Factors of economic growth: direct and indirect.
15. Economic growth and environmental problems.
16. Environmental costs in the structure of the input-output balance.
17. Economic growth and quality of life.
18. Economic growth and the ratio of the elements of the market and the social activities of the state.
19. Conversion and the economic growth.
20. Environmental problems of conversion.
21. Economic growth and problems of urban development in Russia.
22. Zero economic growth.
23. Alternative approaches to market regulation through the mechanism of influence on aggregate demand.
24. Factors affecting the consumption of the population.
25. Functional purpose and the relationship between consumption and savings.
26. The role of investment in the development of macroeconomics.
27. Possibilities of influencing the oscillatory development of the economy of natural, psychological and other factors.
28. Using the principle of acceleration in the analysis of cyclic fluctuations.
29. Keynesian school and theory business cycle Hicks.
30. Statistical account of fluctuations economic indicators, economic models and forecast of economic activity.
31. Changes in the economy of a cyclical (non-cyclical) nature and long-term trends.
32. Structural crisis in Russia and economic recession at the stage of transition to the market. 3 3. Alternative programs for Russia's exit from the crisis.
34. The relationship of cyclical development, the magnitude and structure of unemployment.
35. Various market models (on the examples of individual countries).
36. Methods of analysis of the labor market. segmentation of the labor market.
37. The impact of structural changes in the economy on the labor market.
38. International and domestic labor market.
39. Labor exchanges in Russia (historical aspect).
40. The system of social protection of the unemployed.
41. Monetarist theory of inflation.
42. Problems of the theory of money (1938-1990).
43. The role of money in the classical macroeconomic model.
44. Basic concepts of the money market.
45. Non-banking financial and credit structures and their role in the formation of competitive financial systems.
46. The mechanism of the functioning of the stock exchange.
47. History of the bill.
48. Basic and industrial types of securities: bills, shares, bonds, futures, options, warrants.
49. Relationship between unemployment and inflation: a theoretical discussion around the Phillips curve.
50. Causes of development in the 70s. in the economy of Western countries stagflation and methods of dealing with it.
51. Ability to live in conditions of inflation.
52. Inflation expectations in the economy.
53. Milton Friedman's Money Rule.
54. Methods for calculating inflationary processes in the economy.
5 5. Inflation and income regulation policy.
5 6. budget deficit and inflation tax.
57. Methods of indexation of incomes of the population in terms of inflation.
58. Reproduction and the system of financial relations.
59. The role and importance of financial leverage and incentives in the regulation of reproduction and the market.
60. Income and expenses state budget, their structure and role in the economic growth of production.
61. Fiscal policy and its role in state regulation of the economy.
62. Government spending and aggregate demand.
63. Evolution of types of taxes.
64. Relationship between taxes and subsidies.
65. Local taxes and their role in budgeting.
66. Role fiscal policy in government regulation.
67. The mechanism for the implementation of fiscal policy during the transition to a socially oriented market economy.
68. Antimonopoly policy of the state.
69. The role of the state in ensuring sustainable monetary circulation.
70. Indirect methods of regulation of economic processes.
71. The boundaries of state intervention in the economy.
72. Experience of state regulation of economic and social processes in developed countries ah world.
73. State regulation of prices and incomes.
74. Indicative planning in modern conditions.
7 5. The main trends in the formation and distribution of personal incomes of the population and the evolution of the social structure of society.
76. Distribution of income between families and the poverty line, security. Absolute and relative poverty, physical poverty.
77. Social protection systems: genesis and evolution.
7 8. Household as an object of economic and social policy.
79. Welfer (US experience).
80. Lorenz curve as a measure of the degree of uneven redistribution of income.
81. The concept of a socially oriented market: the reason for the development and the consequences of application in various countries.
SECTION VI. WORLD ECONOMY
1. The main features and conditions for the formation of the world economy.
2. Dynamics of economic interdependence of the subjects of the world economy: essence, retrospective and perspective.
3. Goals and factors of the economic movement of the subjects of the world economy.
4. International division of labor as a factor in the integration of subjects into the world economy.
5. Regional markets of the modern world economy: Europe, America, Euro-Asia.
6. Modern aspects of human capital migration.
7. Ethnogenetic and socio-economic factors in the formation of political and economic centers of the modern world.
8. Russia and economic centers of the world economy.
9. Goals and factors of economic growth of the subjects of the world economy.
10. Concepts of regulation of the balance of payments and the exchange rate.
11. Currency restrictions, their impact on the exchange rate.
12. The mechanism of foreign exchange interventions.
13. World gold market. gold auctions.
14. Operations in the eurocurrency markets.
15. Ways to achieve currency convertibility.
16. Forms of international payments.
17. Problems of mutual settlements of the republics of the former USSR.
18. Analysis of Russia's balance of payments.
19. Integration of the CIS countries.
20. Convertible currency of Russia.
21. economic security Russia.
The main function of the economy can be called the systematic creation of goods necessary for human existence, which help society develop. In other words, the economy acts as a tool for satisfying human needs.
The first mention of the term "economy" can be traced back to the writings of Aristotle, who saw the economy as opposed to chrematistics - the science of enrichment, the ability to accumulate property and wealth.
Forms of the economy
- traditional;
- market;
- administrative-command;
- mixed.
The traditional economy was followed during the pre-industrial society. Today, the traditional economy is characteristic only of the agricultural zones of the underdeveloped countries of Africa, South America and Asia.
The market economy is based on the principles of commodity production (free enterprise), that is, in this form of economy, the key factor in the distribution of goods is not the state, but buyers and suppliers (producers) of goods and services.
The administrative-command (planned) economy is characterized by centralized planning financial activities. This form of economy was inherent in the socialist countries, it existed, in particular, in the USSR, the DPRK and Cuba, but today such economic system practically outlived itself. A mixed economy is a combination of private and public or state ownership of the means of production. Such a mixture is typical for advanced countries that preach democratic socialism.
The mixed economic system makes it possible individual entrepreneurs make decisions on their own financial matters However, the state (society) still has priority in these matters.
The economic sphere is a fundamental sphere in the life of society, since all the processes taking place in this society depend on it.
It is difficult to underestimate the importance of the economy in the life of society throughout the history of mankind. It is the economy that predetermines the material issue of human existence, providing it with everything necessary: food, clothing, housing, etc. The economy is designed to meet the needs of not only a person, but also entire organizations (enterprises), and society as a whole.
Since ancient times, states have faced the task of meeting the needs of their peoples, and in order to solve this problem, it was necessary to develop the economic sphere. To do this, more and more natural resources and territories were involved in economic activity, which helped to maintain economic stability in one way or another.
However, technological and scientific progress did not stand still, and over time, such economic strategy ceased to be effective, a certain ceiling was reached, limiting the possibilities of further development. Progress in the scientific and technical field has given impetus to intensive development economic sphere. New, more progressive approaches to the use of resources have been developed, which has made their consumption much more rational and efficient. The modernization of the economic sphere has taught a person to achieve maximum results, while spending as little as possible of his available resources.
It is worth noting that developed economy positively affects the spiritual component of society. Economic stability gives people the opportunity not only to accumulate, but also to spend money on spiritual benefits: entertainment, development of their cultural values. Otherwise, people lose confidence in the future, start looking for new ways to earn money, which almost always leads to an increase in the level of crime sooner or later.
Abstract on the discipline "Economics"
on the topic: "Economic systems and their protective mechanisms"
Plan
1. Introduction.
2. Types of economic systems.
3. Influence of internal and external factors on economic systems.
4. Protection methods economic models in the global economy.
5. Conclusion.
6. List of references.
1. Introduction.
IN modern world There are many varieties of economic systems and models. Each state, choosing and changing its economic model of building relations within the country, is thus trying to take its place in the global world economy. As a rule, the construction of an effective economic system of the state is carried out taking into account the established business traditions both within the country and its closest neighbors. It is difficult to imagine an economic system that does not take into account the traditions of the population of the country in which this system operates. But, in Lately facts of the influence of the economic systems of developed countries on economic systems have become more frequent developing countries, that is, external factors influencing the economic systems of many countries have become more significant than internal ones. Under such conditions of existence, economic systems must have protective mechanisms. This is the main idea of writing this essay. To know the types of economic systems and to understand what protective mechanisms exist at the moment. And also choose the most suitable economic system for Russia.
2. Types of economic systems.
The traditional economic system is a system of rules in the country's economy, based on the customs and traditions of the peoples living on its territory. Of course, in any economy, the customs and traditions of people living on the territory of the state are taken into account, but when using the traditional economic system, traditions are the main tool in the distribution of income between people from the use of resources.
The traditional economic system is considered the most ancient economic system that existed on earth. As a rule, such a system is based on subsistence farming (cattle breeding, crop production, fishing, etc.). Moreover, the stage of development of such farms is practically at the level of the feudal system. Labor productivity is low, which, in turn, does not contribute to the development of trade and the economy as a whole. At the moment, the use of the traditional economic system is common in the Middle East, Africa and South America. Despite this, the profit from the use of resources is distributed evenly among the population of the state. Everyone gets what they deserve. Such a system is stable, but not very effective.
A market economic system is a system of relationships between people and their associations in the sphere of production, exchange and distribution of resources, based on the significant influence of capital over people. In such a system, profit is everything. Each market participant is set to receive the greatest profit, regardless of his personal attitude to the product.
The market system maximizes the development of trade in the country, but the income from the use of resources, as a rule, is not distributed evenly among the population of the state. When using such a system, labor productivity is high. The stage of development of production technologies and infrastructure is also at a high level. Such a system is highly efficient, but unstable. The pursuit of profit leads to the consumption of resources in a short period of time, which leads to military conflicts, the purpose of which is to obtain new resources. Military conflicts spoil relations between states, which negatively affects trade and leads to economic crisis, and this, in turn, temporarily slows down the development of the world economy as a whole.
A command economic system is a model for building relationships in society based on the execution of commands given from above. Almost all business is regulated by the state, or rather state monopolies. Every sphere of human activity is strictly regulated by law. The choice of goods on the market under such a system is not great, and in the sphere of production, as a rule, there is a shortage of manufactured goods, which leads to a speculative effect on the market. Foreign markets are closed or heavily taxed. From the point of view of the timing of the development of industries, the command economic system is ineffective. Such an economic system exists, most often, in states where the communist system operates.
Having studied the main types of economic systems described above, willy-nilly, the conclusion suggests itself: the use of only one economic system does not contribute to the stable development of the country's economy. Therefore, often, developed countries use mechanisms taken from different economic systems. Thus, mixed economic systems began to appear, the configuration of which is diverse.
3. Influence of internal and external factors on economic systems.
The main internal factors affecting the economic system of the state include: production capacity, level of education, consumer demand, state of banking system.
The most important internal factor influencing the state of the economic system, of course, is production. Only where production is well established can an effective economic system exist in full measure. Signs of a well-established production are: maximum employment of the population by labor, competent distribution of labor resources, proper storage of manufactured goods and timely delivery finished products consumer. favorable conditions labor also contribute to the development of production. Strict observance of labor legislation guarantees workers the preservation of their health, and also provides an opportunity to improve professional skills, which contributes to the development of production and, accordingly, the improvement of the quality of goods, while maintaining its original cost.
To develop new technologies and train qualified personnel, educational institutions are being created that, in general, increase the level of education of people.
The level of education of people employed in production is an internal factor that primarily affects the improvement of the economic system. Educational institutions must keep pace with the times and cooperate with leading enterprises. This is the only way to raise the skill level of employees. It is possible to conduct educational courses at the enterprise itself without taking people away from work.
All labor and educational activities should be guided by consumer demand, which, when starting any production, must be carefully studied and analyzed.
Consumer demand is an internal factor that characterizes the volatility of the economic system and the volume of its turnover. After all, it is important not only to produce a product, preserve it and develop new methods of production, but also who will buy the produced product and in what volumes.
Consumer demand depends on the purchasing power of citizens. It is important that the demand for the purchase of a particular product is stable and predictable. To maintain the stability of consumer demand, as a rule, the state turns to credit organizations for help. They, in turn, offer various options. banking services providing financial support to citizens.
The stability of the economic system depends on the state of the banking system. Part of assets credit organizations must be protected from external influences. The other part must be profitable. At the same time, the risks of credit institutions from bankruptcy should be minimized.
The external factors influencing the state of the economic system include: difference in political and economic views with neighboring states; military conflicts; economic sanctions; debt to the IMF.
One way or another, in the economic sphere, any state has to interact with neighboring countries that have their own economic system. It may be identical to our economic system, or it may be different from our economic system. The similarity of the economic systems of neighboring states can only contribute to the development of the economies of the two countries. But if economic systems neighboring countries are different and, accordingly, economic views are also different, this can lead to a conflict. The conflict may persist in the economic sphere, or it may spread to other sectors.
Due to the fact that the economy, in our time, is inextricably linked with political activity, an economic conflict can move from the economic sphere of activity to the political one. In turn, a political conflict can turn into a military conflict. The solution of military conflicts, as a rule, requires the expenditure of significant resources, which cannot but affect the state of the state's economic system. If a military conflict affects the interests of other countries, then this may lead to the introduction of international economic sanctions against the state that unleashed a military conflict, which, accordingly, will negatively affect the state of the economic system of this state. As a rule, not all states are able to withstand protracted military conflicts. This leads to the fact that the country, unable to resolve the military conflict on its own, is forced to use borrowed funds from the International Monetary Fund. Usage borrowed money The IMF only exacerbates the already difficult state of the economic system of a country that has applied for help from the International Monetary Fund. Thus, the economic system falls into a significant decline, but it should be noted that there is a positive point, which is that as a result of severe economic conditions a weak economic system can transform into a more efficient economic system with a more complex configuration.
4. Ways to protect economic models in the global economy.
The main ways to protect the existing economic system in the country are: creating reserve and insurance funds, linking the securities of national companies to the securities of developed countries, supporting national production, creating conditions for the development of technologies.
And so, let's start in order. Creation of reserve and insurance funds. The formation of funds is necessary in order to delay the negative impact of external or internal factors affecting the country's economy. In order to protect the economic system of the state as a whole, on the basis of surpluses or additional income, formed specifically for these purposes, a so-called reserve fund is created, or, as they say in the common people: an airbag of the state. Such a fund protects the state as a whole, but there are sectors that, in the event of an economic crisis, are most negatively affected and in a short time. For example, such an industry as medicine, road industry, social sphere. The unstable functioning of these industries can lead to destabilization of the state. Therefore, additional funds are being created to support these industries - insurance funds. They contribute to preventing an economic crisis in the bud. Of course, in addition to funds, each family forms, one might say, its own insurance fund, as they say in the common people: to save money for a rainy day. But the significance of such reserves and their volume are not of decisive importance for the state. Since the amount of money stored by the people is difficult to objectively assess, and it is not possible to control their movement, although a lot of research work is being done in this direction.
From what was written above, we can conclude that the effect of protecting the state economic system from funds is short-term. For one or two years, the economic system of the state is able to withstand the negative impact of internal and external factors, with such support measures. It is possible to talk about how to properly form the reserve fund and insurance funds for a long time, but one thing is clear: the structure of the funds should have different configurations.
In continuation of the topic of funds, one important principle of formation should be noted. reserve fund and not only, which is as follows: the money intended for the formation of the fund to invest in securities other countries willing to provide state support these papers and be fully responsible in accordance with the obligations assumed. It is especially important to buy securities of states that have the greatest impact on the formation of the world economy. Thus, the securities of national companies are tied to the securities of developed countries, which, in turn, minimizes the chance of a complete and rapid collapse of the state's economic system. This is due to the fact that if a state needs funds at a critical moment to maintain its existing economic system, it will have to sell the securities of other states, which will negatively affect the global economy and lead to another global economic crisis, which the leaders would hardly want. leading world countries. Thanks to this scheme, the economic balance is maintained throughout the world, which indicates the globalization of economic relations in the world. Thus, the period of stable functioning of the economic system of the state from the formation of funds increases, and the decline of the country's economy slows down. But again, it is worth noting that measures related to the formation of funds can only keep the economic system stable for a short period of time.
Taking into account the forecasts formed on the basis of statistics and analysis of the existing economic system, a plan to support national production should be created. In order to take effective measures to support production, forecasting and planning of the activity of the economic system must be continuous and correspond to the current economic situation. Only the development of national production can help maintain the stability of the economic system for many years to come. To take effective measures to support production, the structure of the economic system must have a mobile headquarters, or a list of employees must be created to form a mobile department capable of solving problems related to national production. As a rule, such a department is formed from the most experienced employees. The structure of the economic system should include not only a mobile department directly related to production, but also a purchasing department, a transport department, a department for the sale of manufactured goods, etc. All these departments should be subordinate to the mobile department.
In our country, support for national production is carried out through the conclusion between the state and manufacturing plants of long-term contracts for the production of goods necessary for state needs. An example of such a product is: cars, agricultural products, equipment for civil servants, etc. The conclusion of long-term contracts between the state and manufacturing plants contributes to the employment of the population, as well as the availability of money in people. Having money means people have purchasing power, which in turn supports retailing.
As well as to support production, the economic system of the state must have a set of tools for the development of production technologies. Unfortunately, in our country, the development of technology is not at the highest level. This is due, first of all, to the insignificant funding of this direction by the state, as well as the lack of a clear idea where it is necessary to direct money supply, i.e. which industry needs to be developed at the moment. The development of technology, in fact, makes it possible for the economic system not only to maintain stability for many years, but also to succeed in certain areas of the global economy.
5. Conclusion.
In the era of world globalization, the dependence of the economic systems of developing countries on the economic systems of developed countries is difficult to overcome, due to a number of reasons related primarily to the favorable geographical location of developed countries, which skillfully use it. But every developing state, including Russia, can reduce the level of dependence and develop effective protective mechanisms of the economic system. The modern economic system, on the one hand, must be integrated into world economy, and on the other hand, it must maintain its mobility to overcome economic difficulties. In a stable time for the country's economy, the economic system should function on the basis of generally recognized market laws; in times of destabilization, the economic system should be able to quickly switch to manual control, capable of mobile response to the difficulties that have arisen. Therefore, the world most often uses an economic system of a mixed type, which includes market mechanisms and mechanisms inherent in the command type of an economic system.
6. List of references.
1. Economic theory: Textbook. Salikhov B. V., Dashkov - 2014, 723 pages.
2. Subject-oriented economic Information Systems: Tutorial. Vdovin V. M., Surkova L. E., Shurupov A. A. - 2012, 386 pages.
3. Economic theory. Zhuravleva G.P., Barkhatov V.I., Gorshkov A.V. - 2007, 848 pages.
4. Modern political economy. M.: Knizhny dom, 2005 Lemeshchenko P.S., Shin N.V. Economy. Tutorial. Moscow: Unit, 2009.
5. General economic theory. SPb. : Dobrynin A.I., Zhuravleva G.P. - 2009.
>Reports on social studies
Economy
What is an economy? The economy is a balanced way of doing business, a set, a certain set of rules for doing business in production system, as well as in the sphere of distribution of goods and benefits, exchange and consumption. The term "economy" was first traced in the works of Xenophon before Christ. e. Xenophon called economics a natural science. But Aristotle contrasted two sciences: chrematistics and economics. Chrematistics is a science that studies human activity in the field of relationships with profit.
Modern philosophy considers the economy as a balance of relations on the part of society, associated with such a concept as value. The main task of the economy is the constant creation of conditions that can ensure normalized life and the existence of society in general. Economy like economic activity, makes it possible to satisfy human interest in resources, which, at the moment, are limited.
The economy has different forms of manifestation:
1. Market
2. Administrative-command
3. Traditional
4. Mixed economy
Economic growth is the production of products that has undergone an increase in volume over a certain period of time.
Factors that lead to economic growth:
1. A large volume of quality workers.
2. Efficiency of fixed capital.
3. The volume of natural resources, their quality
4. Efficient management
5. Latest technology
For the first time, signs of economic growth were noticed in England, at the end of the 18th century. The great industrial revolution led to an economic boom at that time. Then the income of one citizen increased by an average of 10 times. Today, the most underdeveloped countries are forced to survive on a daily income equivalent to 1 US dollar (with US price matching)
Some analysts say economic growth could cause worldwide collapse natural resources. Other critics argue that many civilizations are known to have disappeared due to the fact that the surrounding ecosystem failed to provide enough resources for the growth of these civilizations.
The economy implies the most complex all-encompassing complex capable of creating conditions for life individual person and society as a whole.