Influence of environmental factors on the economy of small business. Overview of socio-economic indicators, including the influence of the environmental factor Environmental factor of the country
In this regard, there is more and more awareness of the limitations of interpreting natural capital only as natural resources. The lake contains a fifth of the world's fresh water resources, regulates the water and climate regime in vast areas, attracts tens of thousands of tourists to admire its unique beauties. For Russia, for example, the enormous importance of fossil resources in the economy is obvious. The role of natural conditions and resources in the development and placement of productive forces Depending on the nature of the occurrence and placement ...
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ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMY
Lecture number 2. (autumn semester)
Lecture number 2. (autumn semester)
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR - 4 hours
factors of production. natural capital
Three factors underlie any economic developmenteconomic growth or three types of capital:
- labor resources (human capital);
- artificially created means of production (capital, the concepts of physical, artificial, produced capital are also used in the literature);
- natural resources (natural capital).
AT recent times the environmental factor began to limit economic development more and more. There is a growing awareness that the economy must live not only according to economic laws, but also take into account environmental ones. Further development is possible only within a fairly narrow ecological "corridor".
As a result, there is a growing awareness of the limitations of interpretation.natural capital onlyas natural resources. Successful economic growth also requires consideration of other environmental functions. This led to an attempt to take into account in theory the economic significance of all its components, their ability to generate income and benefits, as it should be for any capital. In its most general form, three functions of natural capital can be distinguished:
1) resource - providing natural resources for the production of goods and services;
The famous American scientist Barry Commoner figuratively formulated the four basic laws of ecology.
Everything is connected to everything. The ecosystem consists of many interconnected parts, where one affects the other. It stabilizes due to its dynamic self-compensating properties, which can be disturbed under the influence of external overloads,
All must go somewhere.This is an informal paraphrase of a fundamental physical law - matter does not disappear. In nature, there is no such thing as "garbage", the waste of some organisms serves as food for others. One of the main causes of the current ecological crisis is that huge amounts of substances are taken from the earth, converted into new compounds and dispersed in the environment without regard for the fact that "everything goes somewhere." And these compounds accumulate in places where they should not be.
Nature knows best.One of the most characteristic features of modern technology is the notion that it is designed to "improve nature"—to provide goods and services that nature cannot provide. Meanwhile, a major anthropogenic change in the ecological system is harmful to it.
Nothing is given for free.In ecology, as well as in economics, every thing is worth something. The global ecosystem is an integral whole within which nothing can be gained or lost and which cannot be subject to overall improvement. Everything that has been extracted from it by human labor must be replaced.
- ecosystem/environmental services — provision by nature of various kinds of regulatory functions: assimilation of pollution and waste, regulation of climate and water regime, ozone layer, etc.;
- services of nature associated with aesthetic, ethical, moral, cultural, historical aspects. This is a kind of "spiritual" environmental services.
If the first function of natural capital is well known and reflected in the literature by scientists for centuries, then the economic interpretation of environmental services - both ecosystem and "spiritual" - is a new phenomenon. But the fact that these services should be included in the economic turnover, in last years becomes clearer. And this understanding is connected, unfortunately, with huge negative economic consequences caused by ignoring the eco-services economy. It is necessary to realize that "free" nature turns out to be very expensive for a person, if its services and functions are not adequately taken into account. And there are more and more examples of this in Russia and the world.
Let's take a closer look at the economic roleecosystem-tion/environmental services.These are the functions of ecosystems that provide economic benefits for consumers of these services, based on the provision of various kinds of regulatory functions by nature. Consumers of these services can be located both at the local level (for example, individual enterprises), and at the regional and global levels - entire regions and countries. In the latter case, one can speak of global ecosystem services.
Let us show by example the benefits from ecosystem services and the costs/damages in case of loss of their quality. In the summer of 2002, swamps burned in the Moscow region, heavy smog hung over Moscow and the cities of the Moscow region, often visibility was minimal. What are swamps for and how much do they cost? Based on traditional economic approaches, it is much more useful to drain swamps for agricultural land, build holiday villages, roads, use peat for fuel and fertilizers, etc., which has been done over the past decades. And the fact that they played the most important water regulating role, accumulated water, purified it, maintained the water balance in vast areas - this was not taken into account and was not measured by the economy, these are free functions. As a result of many years of exploitation, many swamps have been lost, the general water level in them has decreased significantly. The economic damage from the fires of 2002 was enormous: high costs for extinguishing burning peat; destruction of property and houses in settlements and villages in fire areas; gigantic massifs of burnt forest; an increase in the incidence in Moscow and the Moscow region as a result of smog (hence the quite estimated increase in the population's spending on medicines and medical care); adverse prospects for pregnant women and their unborn children; underproduction due to morbidity and reduced productivity; temporary decline in production as a result of the decision of the Moscow government to limit the activities of especially polluting enterprises; losses due to difficulties in the operation of transport, an increase in its accident rate, etc. etc. The economic losses are colossal even without taking into account such categories as damages from morbidity and mortality. "Free" swamps, it turns out, played the most important stabilizing role in nature, and therefore prevented quite visible economic losses. If climate change is really happening on the planet, then in the future a dry summer for the Moscow region will become an ordinary phenomenon. Therefore, the conclusion is obvious: swamps must be preserved, and where possible, restored - it will cost less. Many countries have been following this path in recent years, zealously guarding their greatly reduced wetlands. Many European countries, in particular Holland, are successfully trying to restore them.
For an economist, the reason for the degradation of swamps is obvious: it is an economic underestimation of their environmental services (ecosystem functions), which leads to the loss of the option of preserving “free” nature in comparison with technogenic development options (agriculture, human settlements, industry, etc.). And this is a worldwide disease. Giant floods in Germany and the Czech Republic in 2001-2002, in China at the end XX century, accompanied by losses of hundreds of millions of euros, are generated, in particular, by deforestation in river basins. How much does a forest cost? Now only its resource functions, products made from it are evaluated: houses, furniture, paper, etc. And forest water-regulating functions are not taken into account.
The general diagnosis of traditional economic models (market, planned, administrative-command, etc.) is the underestimation and ignoring of the environmental factor, the entire set of functions of natural capital. Only the functions of providing a person with natural resources are evaluated, and environmental services, as a rule, do not have a price. This situation has been the source of global environmental problems, the economic damage from which is now enormous, and in the future may become rampant, even if only the problem of climate change.
Separate natural goods and objects can ensure the implementation of both individual functions of natural capital, and all of them in combination. An example of the actual resource provision is oil, gas, metals, etc. The forest mentioned above is a component of natural capital, potentially realizing all three of its functions: 1) provides wood, non-timber products (mushrooms, berries, etc.); 2) provides important ecosystem services - climate regulation through binding greenhouse gases, maintenance of water balance, protection of land from erosion, conservation of biological diversity, etc.; 3) creates a sense of beauty from the contemplation of a beautiful forest landscape, enjoyment from tourism, sports and travel, observing the flora and fauna of forest ecosystems, etc.
An example of a natural object that provides all three functions is Lake Baikal. The lake contains a fifth of the world's fresh water resources, regulates the water and climate regime in vast areas, and attracts tens of thousands of tourists to admire its unique beauties.
Natural capital plays a prominent role in the economies of many countries. For Russia, for example, the enormous importance of fossil resources in the economy is obvious. The use of the "spiritual" functions of natural capital has become an important part of replenishing the income of a number of countries that provide services for recreation and eco-tourism due to their rich nature.
The role of natural conditions and resources in the development and distribution of productive forces
Depending on the nature of occurrence and location, natural conditions and resources can accelerate or slow down the development of the country's productive forces. The availability and ease of development of resources contributes to the rapid growth in the production of material goods. Conversely, the high labor intensity of the development of natural resources or their significant distance from economic centers hinders the development of productive forces and reduces the efficiency of production.
Natural conditions and resources are one of critical factors economic development. From the natural properties of the earth, soil fertility, climate features, forest and other vegetation, wildlife, water of rivers, lakes, seas and oceans, subsoil wealth, air purity, the pace of production and the well-being of people largely depend. The degree of availability of natural resources affects labor productivity; it is the higher, the richer and more accessible natural resources, the lower, therefore, the costs necessary for the production of the final product. After all, the same labor costs bring unequal results, depending on the qualitative characteristics of the resources: soil fertility, calorific value of coal, the content of useful substances in ores of different deposits, etc. The level of productivity is also significantly affected by the natural conditions of the economic development of natural resources. Labor costs will be different for different methods of mining, related to the nature of their occurrence (open or mine mining, seam thickness, etc.), when cultivating land due to differences in relief, soil cover, etc.
The distribution of natural resources across a territory is, as a rule, extremely uneven, which largely determines the territorial division of labor and the economic specialization of certain regions.
Often the natural resource factor serves as the basis for the formation of the economic structure of the territory, determines the territorial organization of the productive forces. For example, the development and location of industries directly related to the use of natural resources (mining, hydropower, logging, agriculture) is determined by the geography of these resources.
The influence of natural resources on the specialization of the economy of the regions manifests itself in two forms. In one case, nature management industries directly determine specialization by supplying their products to various regions of the country or for export. Among the CIS countries, this form is typical for regions of initial development, where nature management industries play a pioneering role (for example, the West Siberian and Northern economic regions of Russia).
The second form of influence is manifested when the branches of specialization of the regions are secondary industries, which are formed on the basis of the processing of local natural resources. It is characteristic of territories with a mature economic structure, or old-developed regions (the Ural region in Russia, the Donetsk-Pridneprovsky region in Ukraine, etc.).
The use of natural resources, the conscious change of natural conditions (reclamation, river regulation, etc.) have always been the most important means of solving social and economic problems in people's activities. Moreover, natural resources are the natural basis for the development of the country's economy, so the economic assessment of the entire complex of natural resources is very important. It allows you to identify the resource availability of the territory and determine practical measures to provide it with the missing resources in the future, which contributes to the improvement of inter-district production relations. From these positions, it is important to establish the natural resource potential of the territory.
Under the natural resource potential is understood the totality of natural resources of the region that are used or can be used in the economy, taking into account the trends of scientific and technological progress. The value of the natural resource potential can be defined as the sum of the potentials certain types natural resources (mineral, water, forest, land, etc.) and depends on a number of factors. The most important of them are: the number of natural resources available in the region (the larger the number of natural resources involved and to be used in the production process, the greater the value of the natural resource potential), their quantitative and qualitative characteristics (the amount of reserves, the content of useful substances, the thickness of the reservoirs). etc.), the complexity of the use of each type of natural resources.
Quantification of the natural resource potential of the territory is possible only if the private potentials of certain types of natural resources are calculated according to a single principle. There are three possible directions of commensurability of qualitatively different natural resources in the literature:
using a point system;
cost indicators;
absolute energy indicators. The greatest importance in the conditions of the formation of market relations is acquired by the cost (monetary), or the actual economic assessment of the natural resource potential, which makes it possible to compare the value of natural resources with other production resources. However, to carry out an economic assessment different types natural resources on a single methodological basis is very difficult, so the value of the natural resource potential of the territory is quantitatively characterized most often by natural-material indicators (volumes of reserves, areas, productivity, etc.).
Natural resource potential of the country and its individual regions changes in the process of nature management, which, on the one hand, is due to the depletion of certain types of natural resources due to their exhaustibility and irrational use. On the other hand, scientific and technological progress opens up opportunities for involving new types of natural resources in the national economic turnover, expanding the country's raw materials and fuel and energy base.
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CHECHEN STATE UNIVERSITY
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Introduction
Main part:
Chapter 1. Economic development and the environmental factor
1.1.Technogenic type of economic development
1.2. Concepts of world development taking into account environmental constraints
1.3. Sustainable economic development
Chapter 2. Externalities and public interests
2.1. Types of externalities
2.2. Accounting for social costs
Chapter 3. Greening the economy and outcomes
3.1. Final results in nature management. Natural food verticals
3.2.Natural intensity
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
The history of the interaction between society and nature shows that humanity most often developed its economy through the predatory use of natural resources. The spontaneous development of productive forces already in ancient societies caused irreparable damage to nature. Changing landscapes over large areas as a result of the destruction of forests to create agricultural land, uncontrolled grazing, soil depletion due to extreme intensification of agriculture, salinization of irrigated lands led to the degradation of vast areas and the decline of entire civilizations of the ancient world - in Mesopotamia, Greece, Asia Minor, Central America. It was from that time that a rapid process of desertification and aridization of land began. The deterioration and destruction of natural resources has led to the emergence of colossal desert areas in Africa and Asia. On the site of the Sahara desert, which is rapidly spreading today, there were previously fertile lands.
However, in ancient times, anthropogenic impacts on the environment were still relatively insignificant, they could not lead to radical environmental changes in nature. And only the 20th century, with the colossal development of productive forces, began critical point reference, after which the fate of mankind began to depend on the nature of the interaction between nature and society.
The economic system as a whole is a system of production, distribution and consumption of goods and services. Within the framework of these processes, the interaction of society and nature is constantly taking place. Any production and consumption is associated with the use of natural resources and the impact on the environment. Any economic decision also has an impact on the environment in the broadest sense of the term. As the functioning of economic systems becomes more complex, production and consumption increase, the role of the natural (environmental) factor is constantly increasing. The study of its significance, role and place in the economy is the subject of environmental economics. In other words, environmental economics is a discipline that considers the economic aspects of the rational use of natural resources and environmental protection. The economics of environmental management is closely related to a number of both natural and human sciences.
Environmental economics is a relatively young science. Its origin at the turn of the 60-70s. 20th century was historically determined: it was during these years that external negative manifestations natural factor in the economy have become quite obvious.
Chapter 1. Economic development and the environmental factor
At the heart of any economic development are three factors of economic growth: labor resources, artificially created means of production (capital or artificial capital), natural resources. Recently, the environmental factor has become increasingly limiting economic development.
1.1. Technogenic type of economic development
Modern environmental problems are to a certain extent generated by the backwardness of economic thought. Only in the 70s. of the 20th century, sharply exacerbated environmental problems confronted economics the task of comprehending the current trends in ecological and economic development and developing fundamentally new development concepts.
The modern type of ecological and economic development of the economy can be defined as a man-made type of economic development. This type can be characterized as a nature-intensive (nature-destroying) type of development based on the use of artificial means of production created without taking into account environmental restrictions. characteristic features The technogenic type of development is the rapid and depleting use of non-renewable types of natural resources (primarily minerals) and the over-exploitation of renewable resources (soil, forests, etc.) at a rate exceeding the possibilities of their reproduction and restoration. At the same time, significant economic damage is caused, which is a cost estimate of the degradation of natural resources and environmental pollution as a result of human activity.
The technogenic type of economic development is characterized by significant externalities or external effects. In nature management, they can be characterized as negative environmental and economic consequences of economic activity, which are not taken into account by the subjects of this activity.
There are various models of technogenic type of development. Currently, there are a significant number of concepts and theories in this area. From the standpoint of environmental and economic policy, two such generalized models can be distinguished: the frontal economy and the concept of environmental protection.
Until very recently, the main focus in economic theory and practice has been on two factors of economic growth - labor and capital. Natural resources were assumed to be inexhaustible, and the level of their consumption in relation to the possibilities of their restoration and reserves was not considered among the determining parameters.
Out of consideration were the consequences of economic development in the form of various kinds of pollution, degradation of the environment and resources. The reverse influence, feedbacks between environmental degradation and economic development, the state of labor resources, and the quality of life of the population have not been studied either. Such an economic system is called a "frontal economy".
The essence of the concept of the frontal economy did not raise objections until very recently. And this is quite understandable, because. unlimited economic growth due to relatively low level development of productive forces, greater opportunities for self-regulation in the biosphere did not cause global environmental changes. And only recently has the realization of the need for a radical change come economic views in the direction of taking into account the environmental factor. Such awareness was largely due to the deep destabilization of the state of the environment as a result of the gigantic development of productive forces, unprecedented population growth, which led to qualitative changes in the relationship between nature and society, and a huge increase in the load on ecosystems.
Growing environmental tension, awareness of the danger of further development of the frontal economy forced many countries to try to take into account environmental factors. In this regard, a concept has appeared that can be quite approximately (due to the heterogeneity and features of various approaches within its framework) defined as the concept of environmental protection. A visible reaction to the growing environmental threat was the creation in more than a hundred countries state structures related to nature conservation. Hundreds of multilateral and bilateral treaties have been adopted to regulate and regulate environmental management on an international scale.
Within the framework of the environment concept, some countries have managed to achieve some environmental stabilization, but there has been no qualitative improvement. This is largely due to the fact that the general ideology of this concept of ecological and economic development has not changed compared to the concept of the frontal economy. The interests of the economy, the maximum increase in production, the widespread use of the achievements of scientific and technological progress in order to better meet the needs of people are still put at the forefront. Under these conditions, environmental protection activities, the costs of environmental protection are presented as something opposing economic growth. However, taking into account the environmental factor is already recognized as necessary, although it hinders economic development.
The concept of environmental protection, as well as the concept of the frontal economy, is based on an anthropocentric approach. The need for environmental protection is based on the premise that environmental degradation harms people and hinders economic development. However, a real resolution of the contradiction between the economy and nature within the framework of this concept is impossible, as evidenced by the avalanche-like growth of environmental problems in the world.
1.2. Concepts of world development taking into account environmental constraints
Economic development must take into account at least two increasingly clear limitations:
1. The limited capacity of the environment to accept and absorb, assimilate various kinds of waste and pollution produced economic systems;
2. The finite nature of non-renewable natural resources.
The unrestrained development of the technogenic type of the world economy has led to the emergence of global environmental problems, each of which can lead to the degradation of human civilization. Among these problems, the following can be distinguished: desertification (aridization), deforestation, shortage of raw materials, greenhouse effect, depletion of the ozone layer, acid rain, fresh water shortage, pollution of the oceans, extinction of animal and plant species, etc.
Global environmental problems are closely related to other global world problems, they influence each other and the occurrence of one leads to the emergence or exacerbation of others.
Awareness of the catastrophic nature of the current type of economic development, the finiteness of natural resources and the interdependence of all ecological and economic processes on our small planet was the most important reason for the start of the development of concepts of world development in connection with environmental restrictions. Especially actively these developments began in the developed countries of the West, where in the 70s. the development of production began to run into the limitation of natural resources.
The reports of the Club of Rome played a great role in the ecologization of world consciousness. This international non-governmental organization was formed in 1970. In order to discuss and develop the prospects for world development. The activity of the club consisted in posing problems and "ordering" their development to individual teams of scientists in various countries of the world. Many reports have made a significant contribution to the theory and methodology of world development.
The most famous report to the Club of Rome was the work of D. Meadows and his colleagues "Limits to Growth" (1972). This report received a worldwide response and became a kind of classic work in the field of world development concepts. The book published on the basis of the report has become perhaps the most cited scientific book of the last two decades. The author has built a world model with feedback loops. The study followed five global directions of world dynamics: accelerating industrialization, rapid population growth, increasing hunger, depletion of non-renewable resources, and environmental degradation. The analysis of global trends was carried out on the basis of exponential, "explosive" growth of the main parameters. Various versions of world dynamics models showed that due to the depletion of natural resources, the growth of environmental pollution, by the middle of the 21st century a crisis, a global catastrophe should erupt on Earth: famine, population decline, epidemics, etc. Only one option saved from the catastrophe - “zero growth”. In accordance with the concept of zero growth, humanity should stabilize the population, stop industrial growth, invest and develop only agriculture to increase food production and services, and in industry only compensate for the depreciation of funds. Despite a number of shortcomings of the study by D. Meadows, in particular, the underestimation of the possibilities of scientific and technological progress, the progress of knowledge, this work was a pioneering attempt to assess the importance of the environmental factor for world development and showed the inevitability of a global catastrophe while maintaining trends in nature management and environmental degradation.
In 1992 A new work by Meadows appears with the symbolic title "Beyond Growth", the main postulate of which is formulated as follows: there are limits to growth, but not to development. Meanwhile, until now, the emphasis in the economy is on growth, understood as a quantitative increase, and not on development, in which qualitative changes are possible.
According to Meadows, the limits of growth are the limits of the intensity of flows, i.e. source limits to provide a flow of resources and sink limits to absorb waste.
Going beyond the limits - "flight" - is a violation of the stability of this ratio due to the excess of the potential capacity of the environment. The reason for the limits is that population and capital in the world system are growing exponentially, and in this situation, the quantitatively growing economy destroys its resource base, after which collapse should occur.
From this, a conclusion is drawn about the need to move towards a balanced, sustainable development between sources and sinks. The reasons for this transition are as follows. Necessary:
A) improve signals (control of sources and sinks, constant real information about the state of the economy and the environment, inclusion of environmental costs in costs, revision of economic indicators so as not to confuse costs with profit, consumption with wealth, depreciation of natural capital with income);
B) reduce response time (active search for signals of excessive environmental load, prediction of problems and knowledge of the algorithm for solving them);
C) minimize the use of non-renewable natural resources (improving the efficiency of use, reducing consumption when switching to the use of renewable resources, recycling);
D) prevent the destruction of renewable resources (protection, matching the rate of use with the rate of self-recovery, sanctions for overexploitation);
E) use all resources with maximum efficiency (the higher the level of well-being can be achieved with less consumption of resources, the higher the quality of life possible without going beyond. This is technically and economically feasible);
E) slow down, and in the future stop the exponential growth of the population and physical capital (determination of the desired and sustainable indicators of the population and industrial production facilities).
These principles contain ideas for the development of society on a balanced basis.
1.3. Sustainable economic development
Now the traditional model of economic growth in developed countries has largely exhausted itself, and it cannot be offered as a model for other countries. This provision runs like a red thread in UN documents and in many speeches at international conferences. In particular, they note that the Western model of development is no longer suitable for anyone and the only way to solve global problems today is sustainable development. The current pattern of development and the corresponding patterns of production and consumption are not sustainable for the rich and cannot be replicated by the poor. This is evidenced at least by the fact that the consumption of natural resources and the volume of pollution per capita in developed countries exceed the similar figure in developing countries ah 20-30 times. In order for all countries of the world to achieve the level of development and consumption of advanced countries, it would be necessary to increase the use of natural resources and the amount of pollution by dozens of times, which is impossible due to limited resources and natural environmental restrictions.
The report of the International Commission on Environment and Development (ICED) "Our Common Future" (1987), carried out on the instructions of the UN by a commission chaired by G.Kh . Brundtland. The purpose of the report was to develop a global program of change in world development. The report proposed long-term strategies in the field of environmental protection that would ensure the sustainable development of the world economy for a long period, considered ways and means by which the world community could effectively solve the problems of nature management. The conclusions and recommendations of the International Commission were positively assessed by the UN General Assembly. Among the most significant are the documents of the UN Conference on Environment and Development, in particular the Agenda 21 program adopted by representatives of 179 states, which is a global program for the economic and social development of mankind in the 21st century.
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It includes two key concepts:
The concept of needs, in particular the needs necessary for the existence of the poorest segments of the population, which should be the subject of paramount priority;
The concept of limitations, due to the state of technology and the organization of society, on the ability of the environment to meet present and future needs.
The tasks of economic and social development should be defined taking into account its sustainability, compliance with the environmental imperative in all countries - developed and developing, countries with a market or other types of economy.
The theory of sustainable development has become, perhaps, not only the most researched, rapidly developing and popular new theory of the last decade, but also quite a “practical” theory - all developed countries of the world have expressed their desire to follow the direction of sustainable development, and almost all of them are somehow conceptual and "self-respecting" official state and international documents in recent years use the concept of sustainable development as a basic ideology.
We can distinguish the following four criteria for sustainable development in the long term. This approach is based on the classification of natural resources and the dynamics of their reproduction.
First, for renewable natural resources (land, forest, etc.), their quantity or ability to produce biomass must at least not decrease over time, i.e. ensuring at least a regime of simple reproduction.
Secondly, for non-renewable natural resources (for example, minerals), the maximum possible slowdown in the rate of depletion of their reserves with the prospect of replacing them in the future with other unlimited types of resources.
Thirdly, for waste, it should be possible to minimize their amount through the introduction of low-waste, resource-saving technologies.
Fourthly, environmental pollution (both total and by type) should not exceed its current level in the future, it should be possible to minimize pollution to a socially and economically acceptable level (“zero” pollution is unrealistic to expect).
All these four criteria (there may be more) should be taken into account in the process of developing the concept of sustainable development. Taking into account these criteria will save the environment for the next generations and will not worsen the ecological living conditions.
Chapter 2. Externalities and public interests
2.1. Types of externalities
An extremely important concept in the economics of environmental management is externalities (external effects). In the course of economic activity, there is a constant impact on nature, people, various objects, etc. With this influence, the emergence of externalities is associated. Externalities are external effects (or consequences) of economic activity that positively or negatively affect the other party.
Suppose that your summer cottage is located in a swamp where it is impossible to build and grow anything. But you have a hardworking and wealthy neighbor who drains his land, creates drainage, fails the road, and so on. In this case, with a high degree of probability, your site also becomes drier, and you can build a secure home, grow your favorite flowers, use the neighbor's road, etc. That is, you get significant benefits from the neighbor's activities. This is an example of positive externalities.
Unfortunately, in nature conservation, the vast majority of environmental impacts are associated with negative external effects: various kinds of pollution, waste, destruction of natural objects, etc. And here externalities can be characterized as negative environmental and economic consequences of economic activity, which are not taken into account by the subjects of this activity.
Externalities do not directly affect the economic situation of the polluters themselves. Pollution producers are interested, first of all, in minimizing their internal costs, and they usually ignore external, external costs as a problem requiring additional costs for their solution. Others have to bear the costs of dealing with externalities. And here a question that is quite reasonable for the economy arises: why should people, enterprises, etc., exposed to external influences, compensate for the negative externalities that have arisen in them, various types of damage?
Interpreting the concept of externalities in a broad sense, depending on the different types of impacts (in time, between sectors or regions, etc.), the following types of external effects can be distinguished.
Temporary (between generations) externalities. This type of externality is closely related to the concept of sustainable development. The current generation must satisfy its needs without diminishing the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Generating global environmental problems, exhausting non-renewable resources, polluting the environment, etc. in the present tense, modern humanity creates huge ecological, economic, social problems for posterity, narrowing their ability to meet their own needs. Here, the fundamental economic moment is the imposition of additional, external costs by the modern generation on the future ones with the prevailing technogenic development. Thus, the depletion of oil in the near future, the massive degradation of agricultural land will create huge energy and food problems for the future, requiring a sharp increase in costs - compared to modern ones - to meet basic needs. There are negative temporal externalities. Positive temporal externalities are also possible. Technological breakthroughs, achievements of the scientific and technological revolution of contemporaries create opportunities to reduce costs in the future. For example, the development of cheap energy production technologies (solar, etc.) will give a significant economic effect in the future.
Global (cross-country) externalities. On a global scale, this type of externality has already given rise to a number of specific problems, primarily related to the transfer of transboundary pollution. Emissions of chemical compounds into the atmosphere, river pollution and other environmental impacts create significant environmental and economic problems for other countries. Air pollution in the UK as a result of the transport of pollutants leads to the appearance of "dead" lakes in the north of Sweden, the need to allocate additional costs for environmental protection. And there are more and more examples of such a negative environmental impact in the world. At present, the world community is aware of this problem. Special world conventions and agreements, intercountry agreements on combating transboundary pollution and obligations of the parties are signed.
Intersectoral externalities. The development of sectors of the economy, especially those exploiting nature, causes significant environmental damage to other sectors. In Russia, the agricultural sector bears huge losses. The extraction of iron ore at the Kursk magnetic anomaly (metallurgical complex) leads to the withdrawal from agricultural circulation of vast areas of the best lands in the world - chernozems. Creation of a cascade of hydroelectric power stations on the Volga ( energy complex) led to the flooding of 5-7 million hectares of highly productive agricultural land. The extraction of energy resources in the northern regions of the country is accompanied by the death and degradation of millions of hectares of reindeer pastures. All this forces agriculture to incur additional costs, to develop additional marginal infertile or remote plots of land. There are also positive intersectoral externalities. The development of some sectors can give a significant environmental and economic effect in other sectors. This is achieved with an alternative solution of environmental problems, structural restructuring of the economy.
Interregional externalities. This type of externalities is a reduced copy of global externalities, only within one country. For such a huge country as Russia with its numerous administrative units, regions, subjects of the Federation, this problem is quite acute. The Volga River can be a classic example here, when the upstream regions create additional costs for water purification in the “lower” regions with their pollution.
local externalities. This case of externalities is the best studied in the literature. Usually, a polluting enterprise is considered in a limited area and the external costs caused by its activities for recipients (other enterprises, population, natural objects, etc.) are analyzed.
2.2. Accounting for social costs
The problem of costs and expenses associated with externalities was first studied by A. Pigou (1920). He singled out private, individual costs and social costs, the costs of the whole society. A. Pigou showed that pollution gives rise to external costs. Obviously, for any entrepreneur, the most important goal is to minimize their private costs in order to increase profits. And here simplest way- Savings on environmental costs. The pollution and waste produced in this case are not taken into account by the entrepreneur himself and, accordingly, the costs of their elimination are not taken into account in the cost price.
Assessment of external, external costs is one of the most difficult economic problems. This issue is closely related to environmental impact assessment.
Externalities, the need to take them into account from the standpoint of the whole society, the reflection of external costs in the price are a fairly well-developed issue in economic theory. However, from a practical point of view, the actual consideration of external effects causes a big "headache" for theorists and practitioners. A number of problems converge here. These are market failures, and underestimation or even free of charge natural goods and services, and the complexity economic evaluation environmental damage, and many other factors make it extremely difficult to accurately account for external costs in specific economic decisions, when developing various types of projects and programs.
Chapter 3. Greening the economy and outcomes
3.1. Final results in nature management. Natural food verticals
Modern critical environmental and economic realities show the need to change the existing technogenic type of development to a sustainable environmentally balanced type. To create fundamentally new environmental and economic projects and programs in various sectors of the economy, it is necessary to develop a concept of ecologization of economic development. This requires a significant change in priorities and goals for the entire economy and for its industries and complexes / sectors. We need to revise the directions of structural and investment policy, scientific and technological progress. Appropriate market regulators are also needed for such changes.
The central question that needs to be answered when developing the concept of greening economic growth is: “Do we need a lot of natural resources?” And really, how much? Some say that even more natural resources should be used, since they are not enough even to stabilize economic growth in the conditions of economic crisis. Others argue that the Russian economy is already using nature's storehouse too hard. Who is right? Now there is neither a strict scientific justification, nor a clear criterion - how much to take from nature.
The existing programs direct the Russian economy towards increasing or maintaining resource consumption in the natural environment. But a legitimate doubt creeps in here. Russia is the world's largest oil producer - about one-sixth of the world's production. However, planes and cars are often idle, tractors and combines do not work during field work, because there is not enough fuel and fuel. Gas production is approximately 25% of the world, but in countryside most houses are not gasified. The country has the most fertile lands in the world - black soil, occupying vast areas, but food imports are growing. Russia is the richest forest power - and at the same time there is not enough paper for the publication of books and newspapers, little furniture is produced. Similar absurd chains can be multiplied for almost all types of natural resources. At one end of such chains there are huge natural resources, and at the other end there is an eternal shortage and shortage of products.
The most important thing in the greening of economic development, the development of an intensive and at the same time conservation approach to environmental management is the need to focus on the final results. For traditional extensive thinking, the volumes of natural resources used are the most important indicators. Meanwhile, these resources are only the initial or intermediate link in a long chain linking nature and products received by the consumer. For the latter, it doesn't matter how much natural resources are used, the main thing is the volume and quality of the products received by him. Under these conditions, it is necessary to program and regulate social production not from natural resources, from how much they can be used, but, on the contrary, from the consumer to resources. This program-target approach is an essential feature of the "intensive" type of thinking.
The implementation of such a program-targeted approach to the use of natural resources involves building for each natural resource or group of resources its own natural resource and product vertical (chain) connecting the primary natural factors of production with the final product. In what follows, for brevity, we will use the term natural product verticals (chains). The movement of natural matter and products of its processing in these verticals is carried out with the help of an integrated chain of activities belonging to different areas and industries, but combined technologically for the production and sale of final products.
The solution of any issue in the natural food chain will inevitably affect the situation with natural resources, possibly indirectly. The construction of such a chain makes it possible to assess the reserves in each of its links and to identify the huge reserves of natural resources that are now being used irrationally.
In connection with this formulation of the question, it is necessary to carefully analyze the interchangeability and complementarity of factors of production (or various types of capital) in the economy from the standpoint of final results, the possibility of saving natural resources while maintaining and increasing the final output of products. The natural factor, living concrete labor and artificially created means of production act as historically established factors of production that complement each other. The release of products implies the mandatory participation of all these factors in the production process.
At the same time, in the process of economic development, to one degree or another, it is possible to use one factor of production instead of another. At the same time, the structure and volumes of output can be preserved, i.e. the principle of interchangeability of factors of production.
The fungibility of factors of production (or different types of capital) is important to consider for the transition to sustainable development. For such a development over time, a simple and / or expanded reproduction of the production potential is necessary, determined by the interaction of all three factors of production (labor, “artificial” and natural capitals) and the institutional factor.
The fundamental issue is the question of the degree of possibility of replacing natural resources with artificially created means of production, the degree of replacement of natural capital by artificial capital. To what extent can we deplete natural resources, using the achievements of scientific and technological progress instead of exhausted resources? Apparently, the possibilities of such a replacement are far from limitless. So a number of functions and services of ecological systems, vital for humans, cannot be replaced at all.
In connection with the problem of the possibility of replacing natural capital with artificial capital, the concept of critical natural capital arose. These are those natural benefits necessary for life that cannot be replaced artificially: landscapes, rare species of plants and animals, the ozone layer, global climate, etc. There are a number of aesthetic qualities of the environment, which are also irreplaceable. Critical natural capital must be preserved under any economic development options. The rest of the natural capital can be replaced by artificial capital. This applies to renewable natural resources and a part of non-renewable finite natural resources (replacement of oil, gas, coal with solar energy, etc.).
3.2.Natural intensity
An important indicator of the effectiveness of the functioning of the natural product system is the nature intensity. This indicator well characterizes the type and level of ecological and economic development. The value of nature intensity depends on the efficiency of using natural resources in the entire chain connecting primary natural resources, products obtained on their basis, and directly the final stages of technological processes associated with the transformation of natural matter.
Two types (levels) of environmental intensity indicators can be distinguished: the macro level, the level of the entire economy, and the product, sectoral level. At the first level, these can be indicators of nature intensity, reflecting macro economic indicators: the cost of natural resources (resource) per unit of gross domestic product, national income, etc.
Unfortunately, nowhere in the world is there an adequate valuation of natural resources. Of course, it is possible to estimate the value of natural resources used in a year on the basis of, for example, market prices. However, the general case, both in the conditions of a centrally planned system and the market, is the underestimation of the natural resources used, the underestimation of their price. Thus, the indicator of nature intensity at the macro level turns out to be deliberately underestimated.
At present, the country's economy is extremely nature-intensive and requires a significantly higher specific consumption of natural resources for production compared to the existing economic structures of other countries and modern technologies.
The extensive type of economic development is characterized by high environmental intensity. In qualitative terms, the growth of nature intensity manifests itself in two aspects. First of all, in the shortage of natural resources, to cover which it is necessary to additionally involve new natural resources in the production process (extensive expansion of the natural base of the economy). In addition, the limited ability to attract new resources, which is now typical for most industries and regions of the country, causes a sharp increase in the burden on the resources that are in use. A frequent consequence of this in the conditions of extensive development while maintaining the technological level is the gradual depletion and degradation of resources, which further exacerbates the economic and environmental situation.
A characteristic feature of the intensive type of economic development is the reduction of natural resource intensity. In this regard, the most important task in the context of the reorientation of the structural and investment policy of scientific and technological progress towards intensification is the minimization of natural resource intensity.
The reduction of nature intensity should organically link two processes in the national economy: a reduction or a certain stabilization of the consumption of natural resources, on the one hand, and an increase in macroeconomic indicators (output) due to the improvement of technologies, the introduction of low-waste and resource-saving production, the use of secondary resources and waste, on the other. Both of these directions provide for a radical restructuring of the economy in favor of nature-saving and knowledge-intensive activities.
At present, in Russia, the costs of natural resources in relation to the final results are excessively high. As the experience of developed countries shows, the nature intensity of both types of indicators (macro level and sectoral, product level) in the country can be reduced by at least 2-3 times.
An important role can be played by the measurement of the indicator of nature intensity in dynamics. It seems that it can become one of the main criteria for the transition to a sustainable type of development. Now there is a lively discussion about the criteria, indicators, indicators, etc. of sustainable development. Unfortunately, the indicator of nature intensity is not taken into account in these discussions. For Russia, a decrease in the indicators of nature intensity at the macro level will be an important evidence of the transition from the formed technogenic type of economic development to a sustainable type. Thus, in the system of sustainable development criteria for Russia, as well as for many other countries with transition economy and a “weighted” industrial structure, the indicator of nature intensity can play an important role.
Analyzing sustainable development in general, one can emphasize the position that reducing the environmental intensity of the economy is a necessary condition for the transition to it for any country and the entire world economy. There can be no movement along the trajectory of sustainable development with an increase in the use of natural resources per unit of the final result. And the experience of the transition of many countries to post-industrial economic structures talks about it.
Emphasizing the need to reduce environmental intensity as necessary condition transition to sustainable development, of course, it should be understood that such a decrease is not a sufficient condition for such a transition. It is necessary to take into account many social, environmental, economic conditions and limitations, a number of which humanity still cannot formulate due to the global nature and lack of study of the theory of sustainable development, the current level of science.
Conclusion
To solve environmental problems in the economy, a results-oriented macroeconomic approach is needed. The traditional "narrow" environmental economics usually considers only natural resources and generated waste and pollution, without paying enough attention to the economy itself. To implement the macroeconomic approach, it is advisable to build for each natural resource or group of resources its own natural product vertical (chain), connecting the primary natural factors of production with the final product. In connection with this formulation of the question, it is necessary to carefully analyze the interchangeability and complementarity of factors of production (or various types of capital) in the economy from the standpoint of final results, the possibility of saving natural resources while maintaining and increasing the final output of products. There are ample opportunities to replace natural capital with artificial capital, but there is a critical stock of natural capital that must be preserved under any economic development options.
An important indicator of the efficiency of nature management in general is the indicator of nature intensity, which is determined by the ratio of the volumes of natural resources used and the final products obtained on their basis. There are two types (levels) of indicators of nature intensity: the macro level, the level of the entire economy and the product, sectoral level. The inverse of the coefficient of nature intensity is the indicator of natural resource productivity. Measuring the indicator of environmental intensity in dynamics can become one of the main criteria for the transition to a sustainable type of development. The decrease in these indicators at the macro level will be an important evidence of the transition from the formed technogenic type of economic development to a sustainable type.
Bibliography
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IMPACT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR ON THE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE BAIKAL REGION
The consumer pressure of the Earth's population (industrial consumption of natural resources) becomes close to the ability of nature to reproduce itself. Wars, weapons testing, irrational use of the planet's resources lead to serious violations of the ecological system, both for local areas and on a regional and global scale. Environmental problems are global. A person in his activity must measure the scale of the changes made with their expediency.
Russia is a unique country. The largest state in the world has colossal reserves of mineral and energy resources. It ranks first in the world in terms of forest area, has 20% of the world's timber reserves, lakes contain 25% of the world's unfrozen fresh water. "Sacred Sea" Baikal is 23 thousand cubic meters. km of fresh water, i.e. strategic resource. The unique economic and environmental situation in the country in the Baikal region (BR) requires, based on the analysis of the world experience of developed and developing countries, a special approach to solving environmental and economic problems, which is associated with the "Baikal" factor.
The “Baikal” factor is a legally established special regime of nature management in the Baikal basin, which strictly regulates all types and objects of life, including the tourist and recreational sphere. Important elements that determine the economic situation and influence the ecological situation in the region are the forest and the world's largest supply of fresh water, as well as the presence of the most valuable large deposits minerals in the territory of the BR.
Analysis and generalization of foreign and domestic theoretical approaches and practices of nature management made it possible to identify the factors influencing sustainable social and environmental-economic development, national security and competitiveness of the economy. Models for analyzing the impact of the environmental factor on economic performance are based on theories of economic development. The technogenic type involves the development of the economy without taking into account environmental restrictions. The adoption of the Concept of Environmental Protection (1972) stabilized the ecological situation, but the economy is aimed at increasing human well-being, and not at improving the quality of life. The adoption of the Concept of sustainable economic development (1992) set the world community the task of limiting production and consumption in economically developed countries, limiting
population growth in developing countries; and reducing disparities between developed and developing countries.
Criteria and limitations of the concept:
1. The extraction of non-renewable resources is normative and limited.
2. Exploitation of renewable resources within the framework of reproduction.
3. Technologies that replace non-renewable resources with inexhaustible ones.
4. Pollution of the planet with waste should not exceed the level of 1992.
5. Resource-saving technologies, use of secondary raw materials.
6. State investment in environmentally friendly, knowledge-intensive industries.
7. Active ecological upbringing and education.
Theorists see the next stage as the stage of connection between the laws of nature and the laws of thought and socio-economic laws - the idea of the noosphere of academician V.I. Vernadsky as a transition to sustainable human activity. The processes that influenced the development of world thought in the field of the relationship of the environmental factor with the country's economy and global issues, were supported by the results of natural resource forecasting. The following models were used.
1. The model of Malthus (1798) predicted the impossibility of providing the population of the planet with elementary products. As a result - epidemics, wars, disasters. The way out is the transition to new technologies, the expansion of acreage and the growth of mining.
2. The dynamic model of J. Forrester (1970) indicated collapse as a result of population growth, environmental degradation and resource depletion. The way out is the need to stabilize population growth, resource consumption, and improve the quality of life.
3. Dynamic model of D.Kh. and D.L. Medouzov (1972) predicted catastrophes by the middle of the 21st century. Exit - "zero growth".
4. The model of M. Mesarovich and E. Pestel (1974) is aimed at taking into account the relationship between environmental factors and economic growth, which is necessary for any activity.
5. Mathematical model biosphere "Gaia" N.N. Moiseeva provided for the development of scenarios for climate change on the planet due to human activities, which stimulated the adoption of political decisions to reduce nuclear weapons and emissions.
The result of the analysis of the models was the conclusion about the catastrophic future of the Earth. To mitigate (further reduce to zero) the negative impact of the environmental factor, methods have been proposed that come down to determining economic damage and developing measures to prevent a negative impact on nature.
Economic damage is determined by pollution of the environment, the costs of compensating for the impact of the polluted environment that has already been carried out and for preventing a new negative environmental impact.
In different regions, economic damage and its minimization have an individual set of factors. The experience of various regions in response to the peculiarities of environmental crisis situations is considered: USA (Alaska); Japan (Hiroshima); European Union (UK and Germany); China; Russia.
Economic damage is taken into account when calculating GRP / GDP, since it reduces the indicator (GRP - gross regional product).
USA, Alaska-GRP $42 billion
Socio-environmental and economic problems: oil spills, military air bases, melting polar ice, decline in production, cancer and other diseases.
Economic damage - $7.6 billion.
Ways to solve problems: ecological landings, public activity, fines, allocation of $2.52 billion from the permanent fund for the introduction of eco-innovations.
Japan, Hiroshima-GRP $102.8 billion, Nagasaki $93.6 billion.
Socio-ecological and economic problems: the state of nature and health of the population after the atomic bombings of 1945, limited territory and resources, the impact of industrial emissions.
Economic damage - up to $2 billion.
Ways to solve problems: creation of a technology park in Hiroshima - $35 billion, transition to an energy efficient policy. In eco-business, compliance with 5R: refine (cleaning), reduce (reduction), recycle (recycling), reuse (reuse), reconvert energy (energy reconversion).
EU, UK - $2,198 billion GDP, Germany - $3,235 billion.
Socio-ecological and economic problems: limited resources, food and energy security, chronic diseases caused by pollution of the soil, atmosphere, water, deforestation.
Economic damage - more than $163 billion.
Ways to solve problems: active introduction of renewable energy sources (RES), improvement of fuel quality, transition to highly environmentally friendly technologies in all spheres of life, an active position of the public, forest plantations, corporate responsibility.
China - GDP $4,758 billion
Socio-ecological and economic problems: demographic and food problems, catastrophic pollution of soil, water and air, deforestation, GMOs, an increase in the number of severe chronic diseases.
Economic damage - $176 billion.
Ways to solve problems: active introduction of renewable energy sources, transition to electric vehicles, hybrids, application of the latest technologies in all areas, soil restoration, forest plantations.
Russia - GDP $1255 billion
Socio-ecological and economic problems: degradation of nature, high energy and resource intensity of production, extinction of the population as a consequence
the effect of staying below the line of food, environmental and other types of national security.
The economic damage has not been officially assessed by experts.
Ways to solve problems: programs to improve energy efficiency and resource saving, transition to new cleaning and environmentally friendly technologies.
The following mechanisms have shown the effectiveness in increasing the environmental and economic sustainability of the region:
1) a system of legal, economic and technological measures - strict environmental legislation, tax incentives, subsidies, active introduction of innovations;
2) the main drivers of the process of introducing eco-innovations are the active position of the public and a high level of corporate social responsibility, state support.
As a result, an increase in average life expectancy, GRP / GDP and average per capita income, the active introduction of environmental innovations: in energy, industry, agro-industrial complex, transport, infrastructure, medicine, science and education.
The maximum environmental effect is observed in the EU countries,
maximum economic efficiency in Japan and China.
The structure of environmental costs: 8% - the state, 85% - business, 7% - specialized environmental service providers.
The latest technologies and environmentally friendly products increase added value, competitiveness, improve conditions and quality of life, and ensure national security.
World experience has shown a reduction in emissions by an average of 23%, an increase in implemented eco-innovations by 2 times and, of course, a direct positive economic effect1.
The Environmental Cleanliness Index (ECI) is calculated as the ratio of the share of environmentally friendly products and technologies in GRP / GDP to GRP / GDP and affects the assessment of global competitiveness. “We evaluate not only GDP growth, but also the quality of life and the state of the environment,” commented Stefan Garelli, IMD professor and director of the World Competitiveness Center2.
Switzerland - 1st place,
USA - 2nd place (IEC - 0.2),
Singapore - 3rd place,
Germany - 7th place (IEC - 0.6),
Japan - 8th place (IEC - 0.8),
Great Britain - 13th place (IEC - 0.6),
China - 29th place (IEC - 0.09),
the Russian Federation- 63rd place (IEC - 0.07).
An analysis of the relationship between the country's competitiveness and the level of environmental cleanliness of production shows that the correlation level (0.7) demonstrates a significant direct and indirect impact of the environmental cleanliness index on the assessment of countries' competitiveness. Given the high level of environmental pollution, the importance of the level of environmental cleanliness in assessing competitiveness will grow.
Focusing on the Baikal region, we took as a basis the strategic task set by the Government of the Russian Federation to raise the region's competitiveness to the level of the countries of the Asia-Pacific region3. The too low level of development of the Baikal region (even compared to the average Russian one) does not allow the Asia-Pacific countries to consider it as an equal and competitive partner, which Russia would like to see this region in a strategic geopolitical and innovative plan.
Among the factors that can affect the sustainable development of the BR, we highlight the following.
Negative influence:
The harsh climate, the remoteness of the region - this is an additional cost of resources;
Economic damage from the influence of environmental and "Baikal" factors - 23.5 billion rubles;
Outdated technologies, low rates of introduction of new technologies;
Food dependence - own provision by 60%;
Policy of double standards - BKTSB, BYAT;
Withdrawal of FPC tax base from the region.
Competitive advantages:
Favorable geographical position for increasing foreign economic activity;
Large reserves of accessible and predictable minerals;
Powerful industrial potential;
Unique forest, water and recreational resources;
A large transport and logistics complex of international importance;
Developed scientific and educational complex - Technopark of ISTU, East Siberian agrotechnopark, Baikal Institute of Nature Management SB RAS;
Experience in implementing renewable energy sources;
The ecological cleanliness of Lake Baikal is a global strategic advantage for the region and the country as a whole.
An analysis of the considered factors determines the possibilities for the development of the Baikal region according to one of the following scenarios.
1. Inertial - continuation of the existing trends in the socio-economic development of Russia.
2. Energy and raw materials - new industrialization. Implementation of large projects in the field of energy, mining and raw materials with a moderate pace of development of processing industries, innovations and investments.
3. Innovative scenario of balanced development - the most complete use of competitive advantages, active support of vital industries. This will make it possible for the region's economy to become a market (concept, strategy and program for the development of the BR and the Far Eastern Federal District with the allocation of priority development zones).
The strategy for the development of the Baikal region until 2025 provides for its division into 5 zones. We propose to single out 8 zones of advanced development of the BR:
1 - innovation cluster (Irkutsk agglomeration);
2 + 3 + 4 - industrial belt (Bratsko-Ust-Ilimsk agglomeration + Lena-Angara Baikal region + Trans-Baikal mining agglomeration);
5 - tourist and recreational zone;
6 - agro-industrial zone;
7 - zone of immersion in the culture and business environment of the partner countries;
8 - Tibetan medicine.
The agricultural regions of the BR are adjacent to the Buryat and Zabaikalsky agricultural regions, with which they have similarities in natural-climatic, demographic, environmental, financial and technological factors. The priority task is to ensure the food security of the region. The ruble in agriculture can give 2.5 rubles. in the agro-industrial complex and at least 4 rubles. in related industries. The creation of an agro-technopark in the Irkutsk region will provide BR with new-generation domestic sowing, harvesting and processing equipment. Joint development of agricultural areas in breeding, biotechnology, melioration and fertilizers is already leading to an increase in the share of the agro-industrial complex in GRP.
We propose to create a zone of immersion in the culture and business environment of partner countries (7) on the border with the Far East and Asia-Pacific regions. Despite the annual graduation of several thousand specialists focused on working with the Asia-Pacific countries, mutual understanding of business partners at the cultural level remains problematic. The creation of a center for improving the acquired knowledge in the practice of negotiations, role-playing games, cultural events between students and entrepreneurs from Russia and the Asia-Pacific countries will help not only to unleash the creative potential of event participants, but also to eliminate the language barrier, strengthen trade, economic, scientific and educational ties with immersion in business -environment innovative economy through cultural ties. This will strengthen the con-
competitiveness in terms of human capital, will attract investments, will contribute to long-term productive cooperation based on established business and friendly ties.
It is proposed to allocate Tibetan medicine to the priority development zone (8), since high-quality natural material for the production of medicines under the brand of environmentally friendly raw materials BPT, treatment courses based on centuries-old knowledge and methods of traditional medicine, combined with modern technologies, will improve the quality of health local population and visiting tourists.
The predicted socio-economic indicators calculated by the Center for Strategic Development of Russia and the Ministry of Regional Development (with an investment in the BR of $600 billion, or 1 trillion rubles per year), on which the strategy and development programs of the BR4 are built, give a chance to reach the following socio-economic indicators by 2025 G.:
Average growth rates of GRP - 6.2%;
GRP per capita - $23 thousand;
The average life expectancy is 72 years;
Provision of housing - 32 sq. m per person;
The share of the high-tech sector, the knowledge economy - 40% of GRP;
Share of innovative products - 55-60% of GRP;
The share of BR in the world economy is 1.8-2%.
To complete the task, you must:
1) eliminate the policy of double standards;
2) increase the scope of public-private partnerships;
3) to fully finance specific programs and projects, taking into account the zoning of the region.
The model of sustainable environmental and economic development of the BR that we have developed is based on the development of human potential and includes a comprehensive solution of socio-ecological and economic problems through the interaction of the following factors:
1. Adopt a clearly defined legislative framework, tax incentives and zoning BR will attract investors. The creation of priority development zones will allow the BR to overcome socio-economic backwardness and preserve its unique properties.
2. Public-private partnership will provide an opportunity to solve the set tasks at a high level in accordance with the priority.
3. The creation of clusters, technology parks will allow to produce environmentally-oriented products, increase value added and GRP, improve the health of residents, and increase the competitiveness of the region.
4. New inventions and technologies will stimulate the development of eco-business and renewable energy, resource conservation, which will lead to the solution of the issue of distribution
division of natural, resource and intellectual rent, activates the public, whose position will influence the factors described.
5. Removing the problem of food security through the development of the agro-industrial complex and an active foreign trade strategy will be based on the brand of an environmentally friendly and competitive product from the BR, which will affect the improvement of the quality of human potential.
Analysis and generalization of foreign and domestic theoretical provisions and practical experience in rational environmental management showed that National security and the competitiveness of the economies of states are determined by the level of use of environmental innovations in all spheres of life, including science and education, energy, industry, agriculture, transport, infrastructure and communications.
The factor of an active position in society regarding the right to health and quality of life has a direct impact on the foreign environmental policy adopted by the government. Unfortunately, environmental organizations do not have a strong influence in Russia, momentary economic benefit becomes more important for them than the health of the population and the future of the country. The level of corporate responsibility in European, American and Japanese companies is an order of magnitude higher, although there are already qualitative shifts in the minds of Russian government and business leaders who are jointly introducing economic innovations into production. In developed countries, entrepreneurs have long realized the benefits of using clean technologies. In developing and newly industrialized countries, environmental policy is more flexible, but business has not reached the same level of responsibility as in developed countries. Meanwhile, there are obvious improvements and advances in the field of ecology (Singapore, Taiwan).
Notes
1 Rosstat: http://www.gks.ru/ National statistical services: USA, Japan, Germany, Great Britain, China.
2 World Economic Forum. http://www.weforum.org/documents/GCR09/index.html
3 Official portal of the Irkutsk region: http://www.irkobl.ru/economy/ecology/ situation/
4 Socio-economic development strategy Far East and the Baikal region for the period up to 2025 http://www.garant.ru
Introduction
Main part:
Chapter 1. Economic development and the environmental factor
1.1.Technogenic type of economic development
1.2. Concepts of world development taking into account environmental constraints
1.3. Sustainable economic development
Chapter 2. Externalities and public interests
2.1. Types of externalities
2.2. Accounting for social costs
Chapter 3. Greening the economy and outcomes
3.1. Final results in nature management. Natural food verticals
3.2.Natural intensity
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
The history of the interaction between society and nature shows that humanity most often developed its economy through the predatory use of natural resources. The spontaneous development of productive forces already in ancient societies caused irreparable damage to nature. Changing landscapes over large areas as a result of the destruction of forests to create agricultural land, uncontrolled grazing, soil depletion due to extreme intensification of agriculture, salinization of irrigated lands led to the degradation of vast areas and the decline of entire civilizations of the ancient world - in Mesopotamia, Greece, Asia Minor, Central America. It was from that time that a rapid process of desertification and aridization of land began. The deterioration and destruction of natural resources has led to the emergence of colossal desert areas in Africa and Asia. On the site of the Sahara desert, which is rapidly spreading today, there were previously fertile lands.
However, in ancient times, anthropogenic impacts on the environment were still relatively insignificant, they could not lead to radical environmental changes in nature. And only the 20th century, with the colossal development of productive forces, became a critical starting point, beyond which the fate of mankind began to depend on the nature of the interaction between nature and society.
The economic system as a whole is a system of production, distribution and consumption of goods and services. Within the framework of these processes, the interaction of society and nature is constantly taking place. Any production and consumption is associated with the use of natural resources and the impact on the environment. Any economic decision also has an impact on the environment in the broadest sense of the term. As the functioning of economic systems becomes more complex, production and consumption increase, the role of the natural (environmental) factor is constantly increasing. The study of its significance, role and place in the economy is the subject of environmental economics. In other words, environmental economics is a discipline that considers the economic aspects of the rational use of natural resources and environmental protection. The economics of environmental management is closely related to a number of both natural and human sciences.
Environmental economics is a relatively young science. Its origin at the turn of the 60-70s. The 20th century was historically determined: it was during these years that the external negative manifestations of the natural factor in the economy became quite obvious.
Chapter 1. Economic development and the environmental factor
At the heart of any economic development are three factors of economic growth: labor resources, artificially created means of production (capital or artificial capital), natural resources. Recently, the environmental factor has become increasingly limiting economic development.
1.1. Technogenic type of economic development
Modern environmental problems are to a certain extent generated by the backwardness of economic thought. Only in the 70s. In the 20th century, sharply exacerbated environmental problems set the task for economic science to comprehend the current trends in environmental and economic development and develop fundamentally new concepts of development.
The modern type of ecological and economic development of the economy can be defined as a man-made type of economic development. This type can be characterized as a nature-intensive (nature-destroying) type of development based on the use of artificial means of production created without taking into account environmental restrictions. The characteristic features of the technogenic type of development are the rapid and depleting use of non-renewable types of natural resources (primarily minerals) and the over-exploitation of renewable resources (soil, forests, etc.) at a rate exceeding the possibilities of their reproduction and restoration. At the same time, significant economic damage is caused, which is a cost estimate of the degradation of natural resources and environmental pollution as a result of human activity.
The technogenic type of economic development is characterized by significant externalities or external effects. In nature management, they can be characterized as negative environmental and economic consequences of economic activity, which are not taken into account by the subjects of this activity.
There are various models of technogenic type of development. Currently, there are a significant number of concepts and theories in this area. From the standpoint of environmental and economic policy, two such generalized models can be distinguished: the frontal economy and the concept of environmental protection.
Until very recently, the main focus in economic theory and practice has been on two factors of economic growth - labor and capital. Natural resources were assumed to be inexhaustible, and the level of their consumption in relation to the possibilities of their restoration and reserves was not considered among the determining parameters.
Out of consideration were the consequences of economic development in the form of various kinds of pollution, degradation of the environment and resources. The reverse influence, feedbacks between environmental degradation and economic development, the state of labor resources, and the quality of life of the population have not been studied either. Such an economic system is called a "frontal economy".
The essence of the concept of the frontal economy did not raise objections until very recently. And this is quite understandable, because. Unlimited economic growth, due to the relatively low level of development of the productive forces, the biosphere's great potential for self-regulation, did not cause global environmental changes. And only recently came the realization of the need for a radical change in economic views in the direction of taking into account the environmental factor. Such awareness was largely due to the deep destabilization of the state of the environment as a result of the gigantic development of productive forces, unprecedented population growth, which led to qualitative changes in the relationship between nature and society, and a huge increase in the load on ecosystems.
Growing environmental tension, awareness of the danger of further development of the frontal economy forced many countries to try to take into account environmental factors. In this regard, a concept has appeared that can be quite approximately (due to the heterogeneity and features of various approaches within its framework) defined as the concept of environmental protection. A visible reaction to the growing environmental threat was the creation in more than a hundred countries of state structures related to nature protection. Hundreds of multilateral and bilateral treaties have been adopted to regulate and regulate environmental management on an international scale.
Within the framework of the environment concept, some countries have managed to achieve some environmental stabilization, but there has been no qualitative improvement. This is largely due to the fact that the general ideology of this concept of ecological and economic development has not changed compared to the concept of the frontal economy. The interests of the economy, the maximum increase in production, the widespread use of the achievements of scientific and technological progress in order to better meet the needs of people are still put at the forefront. Under these conditions, environmental protection activities, the cost of environmental protection are presented as something opposed to economic growth. However, taking into account the environmental factor is already recognized as necessary, although it hinders economic development.
The concept of environmental protection, as well as the concept of the frontal economy, is based on an anthropocentric approach. The need for environmental protection is based on the premise that environmental degradation harms people and hinders economic development. However, a real resolution of the contradiction between the economy and nature within the framework of this concept is impossible, as evidenced by the avalanche-like growth of environmental problems in the world.
1.2. Concepts of world development taking into account environmental constraints
Economic development must take into account at least two increasingly clear limitations:
1. Limited capacity of the environment to accept and absorb, assimilate various kinds of waste and pollution produced by economic systems;
2. The finite nature of non-renewable natural resources.
The unrestrained development of the technogenic type of the world economy has led to the emergence of global environmental problems, each of which can lead to the degradation of human civilization. Among these problems, the following can be distinguished: desertification (aridization), deforestation, shortage of raw materials, greenhouse effect, depletion of the ozone layer, acid rain, fresh water shortage, pollution of the oceans, extinction of animal and plant species, etc.
Global environmental problems are closely related to other global world problems, they influence each other and the occurrence of one leads to the emergence or exacerbation of others.
At the heart of any economic development are three factors of economic growth: labor resources, artificially created means of production (capital or artificial capital), natural resources. Recently, the environmental factor has become increasingly limiting economic development.
2.1.Technogenic type of economic development
Modern environmental problems are to a certain extent generated by the backwardness of economic thought. Only in the 70s. In the 20th century, sharply exacerbated environmental problems set the task for economic science to comprehend the current trends in environmental and economic development and develop fundamentally new concepts of development.
The modern type of ecological and economic development of the economy can be defined as a man-made type of economic development. This type can be characterized as a nature-intensive (nature-destroying) type of development based on the use of artificial means of production created without taking into account environmental restrictions. The characteristic features of the technogenic type of development are the rapid and depleting use of non-renewable types of natural resources (primarily minerals) and the over-exploitation of renewable resources (soil, forests, etc.) at a rate exceeding the possibilities of their reproduction and restoration. At the same time, significant economic damage is caused, which is a cost estimate of the degradation of natural resources and environmental pollution as a result of human activity.
The technogenic type of economic development is characterized by significant externalities or external effects. In nature management, they can be characterized as negative environmental and economic consequences of economic activity, which are not taken into account by the subjects of this activity.
There are various models of technogenic type of development. Currently, there are a significant number of concepts and theories in this area. From the standpoint of environmental and economic policy, two such generalized models can be distinguished: the frontal economy and the concept of environmental protection.
Until very recently, the main focus in economic theory and practice has been on two factors of economic growth - labor and capital. Natural resources were assumed to be inexhaustible, and the level of their consumption in relation to the possibilities of their restoration and reserves was not considered among the determining parameters.
Out of consideration were the consequences of economic development in the form of various kinds of pollution, degradation of the environment and resources. The reverse influence, feedbacks between environmental degradation and economic development, the state of labor resources, and the quality of life of the population have not been studied either. Such an economic system is called a "frontal economy".
The essence of the concept of the frontal economy did not raise objections until very recently. And this is quite understandable, because. Unlimited economic growth, due to the relatively low level of development of the productive forces, the biosphere's great potential for self-regulation, did not cause global environmental changes. And only recently came the realization of the need for a radical change in economic views in the direction of taking into account the environmental factor. Such awareness was largely due to the deep destabilization of the state of the environment as a result of the gigantic development of productive forces, unprecedented population growth, which led to qualitative changes in the relationship between nature and society, and a huge increase in the load on ecosystems.
Growing environmental tension, awareness of the danger of further development of the frontal economy forced many countries to try to take into account environmental factors. In this regard, a concept has appeared that can be quite approximately (due to the heterogeneity and features of various approaches within its framework) defined as the concept of environmental protection. A visible reaction to the growing environmental threat was the creation in more than a hundred countries of state structures related to nature protection. Hundreds of multilateral and bilateral treaties have been adopted to regulate and regulate environmental management on an international scale.
Within the framework of the environment concept, some countries have managed to achieve some environmental stabilization, but there has been no qualitative improvement. This is largely due to the fact that the general ideology of this concept of ecological and economic development has not changed compared to the concept of the frontal economy. The interests of the economy, the maximum increase in production, the widespread use of the achievements of scientific and technological progress in order to better meet the needs of people are still put at the forefront. Under these conditions, environmental protection activities, the cost of environmental protection are presented as something opposed to economic growth. However, taking into account the environmental factor is already recognized as necessary, although it hinders economic development.
The concept of environmental protection, as well as the concept of the frontal economy, is based on an anthropocentric approach. The need for environmental protection is based on the premise that environmental degradation harms people and hinders economic development. However, a real resolution of the contradiction between the economy and nature within the framework of this concept is impossible, as evidenced by the avalanche-like growth of environmental problems in the world.
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